Viewpoint

Dr Saad Saleem

 Throughout history, countless creatures have emerged and become extinct, following the intricate designs of evolution. Many religious texts, such as the Bible and Quran, suggest that God has had a direct hand in these events, initiating changes in biodiversity according to His divine wisdom and plan for the earth (Genesis 1:24-25, Quran 2:30). From this viewpoint, God's creative power has generated a multitude of organisms, each uniquely equipped to survive within specific environmental contexts [1].

The Emergence of Modern Humans

Fossil evidence indicates that anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, first appeared in Africa around 200,000-300,000 years ago [2]. Over time, these early humans migrated to different parts of the globe, using primitive tools and their evolving intellects to survive in diverse environments [3].

Figure 1: Migration of early humans[1]

Coexistence of Humans with Other Hominid Species

For tens of thousands of years, Homo sapiens lived alongside other hominid species, such as the Neanderthals and Denisovans [4]. Archaeological evidence shows that these hominids interacted, competed, and even interbred, contributing to the genetic diversity of modern humans [5].

Early Human Culture: Communication, Religion, and Violence

Historical records and archaeological findings reveal early humans' capacity for complex communication, religious thought, and interpersonal violence. Cave paintings, for instance, testify to an early form of symbolic communication, indicating the capacity for abstract thinking [6]. Similarly, burial rituals and sacred artifacts suggest a primitive understanding of spirituality or religion [7]. Evidence of skeletal trauma and weapon-inflicted injuries reveal a propensity for violence, presumably related to conflicts over resources or territory [8].

Human Dietary Habits

Stable isotope analysis suggests that early humans primarily consumed meat, likely procured through hunting and scavenging [9]. Unlike other carnivores, humans appeared to be selective hunters based on isotopic analysis, targeting herbivores with high fat to protein ratios, such as mammoths and bison [10].

The Extinction of Other Hominid Species

Around 40,000 years ago, other hominid species, including Neanderthals and Denisovans, disappeared from the fossil record, leaving Homo sapiens as the sole survivors [11]. While the reasons behind this are not fully understood, competition with Homo sapiens and environmental changes are among the leading theories [12].

The Arrival of Prophet Adam

About 10,000 years ago, the Agricultural Revolution began, fundamentally altering human society. With the advent of farming, humans were able to create stable communities, culminating in the first known cities. The city of Jericho is often considered the first known city, built around 9,000 BCE in the Levant region and Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey is considered one of the earliest urban settlements, existing from approximately 7100 BC to 5700 BC [13]. The advent of agriculture and settlements aligns with religious narratives, particularly in Islam and Christianity, about the arrival of Prophet Adam, considered the first true human being.

This alignment is indicated in Surah Baqarah of the Quran (2:30) and Genesis of the Bible (Genesis 4:2). God elevated humans to the status of "Khalifa" or stewards of Earth (Quran 2:30). Angels questioned this promotion, referencing humans' tendency towards mischief and bloodshed, an observation possible only if humans had already existed on Earth before Prophet Adam. This also correlates with the development of language, as all known human language families seem to evolve from a common ancestor, a concept known as the Proto-World hypothesis [14].

Prophet Adam's Descendants and Other Humans

There were anatomically similar human beings before Prophet Adam, and he probably coexisted with them. The survival of Prophet Adam's descendants can be attributed to their superior technology, communication skills due to developed language, and possibly intermarriage with existing humans. Other human populations may have also perished due to environmental changes, allowing the descendants of Prophet Adam to proliferate [15].

Initial human settlements were primarily in the Middle East and North Africa, with humans gradually spreading outwards. Before the rise of major civilizations, such as the Sumerians and Egyptians, there was a period of disruption likely linked to the story of the Great Flood in the Bible (Genesis 7:17-24) and Quran (Surah Hud 11:25-48), during the time of Prophet Noah in Middle East [16].

The Post-Flood Dispersion of Prophet Noah's Descendants

Following the Great Flood, the descendants of Prophet Noah's sons—Ham, Shem, and Japheth—spread across the world. Various civilisations emerged from their lineages, with Ham's descendants founding the African civilisations, Shem's descendants leading to the Middle Eastern civilisations, and Japheth's descendants creating the European and some Asian civilisations (Genesis 10:1-32) [17].

Figure 2: Probable migrations from the children of Shem (Middle East) and Japheth (Eurassian Steppe) after the great flood[2]

The Age of Abrahamic Prophets

Around 2000 BC, the Abrahamic period began. In this period, there was a shift from individual to national prophethood, which was most evident in the rise and fall of the Israelites, who were given the responsibility as a nation to communicate God's message to surrounding nations [18]. Mega empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman Empires witnessed multiple rises and falls of Israelites, which were largely contingent on their relationship with God.

After Jesus, the Israelites lost their sovereignty, and the Ishmaelites rose to prominence with the advent of Prophet Muhammad about 1400 years ago [19]. Similar to the Israelites, the Ishmaelites have seen multiple rises and falls and are currently subdued by other nations [20].

The Modern Era: The Age of Gog and Magog

The modern era, according to biblical interpretation, can be considered the age of the descendants of Japheth, specifically Gog and Magog (Ezekiel 38-39, Revelation 20:7-10). Their release, as described in the Quran (Surah Al-Kahf 18:94-99) and the Bible, will eventually result in a significant conflict, culminating in the Day of Judgment. This interpretation aligns with the historical emergence of the Mongols, Turks, and European colonizers, suggesting a continuing process of their release [21].

References

[1] The Bible. Genesis 1:24-25. The Quran. Surah Baqarah 2:30.

[2] Hublin, J. J., & Roebroeks, W. (2009). Ebb and flow or regional extinctions? On the character of Neandertal occupation of northern environments. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 8(5), 503-509.

[3] Stringer, C. (2016). The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(1698).

[4] Higham, T., et al. (2014). The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature, 512(7514), 306-309.

[5] Prüfer, K., et al. (2014). The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature, 505(7481), 43-49.

[6] Zaidner, Y., et al. (2018). An Early Aurignacian arrival in southwestern Europe. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2(5), 873-881.

[7] Pearson, M. P. (1999). The archaeology of death and burial. Sutton Publishing.

[8] Walker, P. L. (2001). A bioarchaeological perspective on the history of violence. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30(1), 573-596.

[9] Richards, M. P., & Trinkaus, E. (2009). Isotopic evidence for the diets of European Neanderthals and early modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(38), 16034-16039.

[10] Bocherens, H., et al. (2015). Isotopic insight on paleodiet of extinct Pleistocene megafaunal Xenarthrans from Argentina. Gondwana Research, 27(3), 1314-1322.

[11] Bocquet-Appel, J. P., & Degioanni, A. (2013). Neanderthal demographic estimates. Current Anthropology, 54(S8), S202-S213.

[12] Stewart, J. R., & Stringer, C. B. (2012). Human evolution out of Africa: the role of refugia and climate change. Science, 335(6074), 1317-1321.

[13] Meece, S. K. (2006). A bird’s eye view of Çatalhöyük. Anatolian Studies, 56, 1-21.

[14] Ruhlen, M. (1994). On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy. Stanford University Press.

[15] Relethford, J. H. (2001). Genetics and the Search for Modern Human Origins. Wiley-Liss.

[16] Bible. Genesis 7:17-24. Quran. Surah Hud 11:25-48.

[17] Bible. Genesis 10:1-32.

[18] Azeemi, S. S. (2005). Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato.

[19] Armstrong, K. (1992). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco: Harper.

[20] Lewis, B. (2002). What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response. Oxford University Press. [21] Bible. Ezekiel 38-39, Revelation 20:7-10. Quran. Surah Al-Kahf 18:94-99.

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