4. An Exegetical Investigation of Isaiah 42

4.1.        Isaiah 42:1-4

1​ ​הֵן עַבְדִּי אֶתְמָךְ־בֹּו בְּחִירִי רָצְתָה נַפְשִׁי נָתַתִּי רוּחִי עָלָיו מִשְׁפָּט לַגֹּויִם יֹוצִֽיא׃ 2​ ​לֹא יִצְעַק וְלֹא יִשָּׂא וְלֹֽא־יַשְׁמִיעַ בַּחוּץ קֹולֹֽו׃ ​ 3קָנֶה רָצוּץ לֹא יִשְׁבֹּור וּפִשְׁתָּה כֵהָה לֹא יְכַבֶּנָּה לֶאֱמֶת יֹוצִיא מִשְׁפָּֽט׃ ​4​ ​לֹא יִכְהֶה וְלֹא יָרוּץ עַד־יָשִׂים בָּאָרֶץ מִשְׁפָּט וּלְתֹורָתֹו אִיִּים יְיַחֵֽילוּ׃ פ

Translation (The King James Version)

BEHOLD my servant, whom I uphold; mine elect, in whom my soul delighteth; I have put my spirit upon him: he shall bring forth judgement to the Gentiles. He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street. A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench: he shall bring forth judgement unto truth. He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he have set judgement in the earth: and the isles shall wait for his law.

The Servant of the Lord: Identity and Characteristics

In verses 1-4, God speaks of His Chosen Servant, intertwining two central themes: the Servant’s description and the delineation of his mission. These verses portray the commissioning of a figure identified as God’s Servant.[1] The expression עַבְדִּי ("My Servant") appears frequently in the Hebrew Bible, where it is applied to various individuals. While this term alone is insufficient to conclusively identify the figure described in these verses, it underscores the significance of his relationship with God and God’s preferred form of address, evoking a sense of formality and solemnity akin to the acts of installing someone in office.

Turning to the Qur’ān, we find God referring to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as His Servant, notably in the opening passages of several significant chapters,[2] in a manner reminiscent of the opening of Isaiah 42. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also instructed his followers to recognise him as God’s Servant, cautioning against any form of exaggerated veneration.[3] His directive underscores a profound commitment to humility and a deliberate insistence on being identified foremost as God’s Servant and Messenger.

This Servant does not stand alone. God supports, strengthens, or upholds him. The phrase אֶתְמָךְ־בֹּו (whom I uphold) points to this fact. The Qur’ān consistently highlights the divine support extended to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), emphasising both God’s protection and His provision of aid during critical moments of the Prophet’s mission. This support is portrayed as encompassing physical assistance, such as strengthening him and rallying the believers around him,[4] as well as emotional reassurance during moments of distress. God’s promise to safeguard the Prophet from harm and to ensure the success of his mission is repeatedly affirmed, demonstrating the centrality of divine backing in enabling him to overcome opposition and fulfil his role as God’s Messenger. These depictions underscore the unique relationship between the Prophet and God, characterised by constant guidance, protection, and support. This aspect of divine protection and support is further elucidated and expanded upon in Isaiah 42:6.

The Servant is chosen by God בְּחִירִי (bəḥîrī). The Qur’ān frequently uses اختر (ikhtara), اصطفى (iṣṭafā), and اجتبى (ijtibā) to express God’s selection of prophets, including Muhammad (pbuh), and righteous servants, serving as semantic equivalents of Hebrew בְּחִירִי (bəḥîrī, "My chosen one").[5]

The phrase רָצְתָה נַפְשִׁי (rāṣtā nap̄šī), translated as “in whom My Soul delighteth,” is central to the depiction of the Servant in Isaiah 42:1. Linguistically, the verb רצה (rāṣāh), meaning “to delight,” often carries the sense of acceptance, pleasure, or favour in Biblical Hebrew. Accordingly, God is well pleased with the Servant.

From an Arabic perspective, the Qur’ānic expression رَضِيَ (radiya, “to be pleased”) bears a similar semantic range to רצה (rāṣāh). The Qur’ān in several passages emphasises God’s pleasure for the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).[6] These parallels align closely with the Biblical use of רצה (rāṣāh), where God expresses delight/pleasure in His chosen Servant.

Building upon the declaration that He is pleased with the Servant, God says נָתַתִּי רוּחִי עָלָיו (nāṯattî rūḥī ʿālāyw), translated as “I have put My spirit upon him.” The concept of putting the spirit (ruach)[7] on someone is closely tied to prophecy. Prophets like Isaiah, Ezekiel, and others (peace be upon them) were filled with the spirit to declare God's will (e.g., Ezek. 2:2, Joel 2:28). Ibn Ezra interprets “My spirit” as referring to the “spirit of prophecy”,[8] aligning with broader prophetic traditions that depict the Spirit as the means by which God imparts revelation (cf. Isa. 61:1).

The Aramaic Targum’s rendering of Isaiah 42:1 introduces the term “Memra”,[9] a concept frequently employed in the Targumim to articulate divine activity. Bruce Chilton notes that the use of terms like “Memra” and “Shekhinah” in the Targum is often understood as a means of avoiding anthropomorphic descriptions of God.[10] However, he argues that these terms are not mere substitutions but rather deliberate theological devices that highlight different aspects of God’s engagement with the world. Specifically, he explains that Memra emphasises God’s word of command.

Quite remarkably, the Qur’ān connects amr (command) and rūḥ (spirit), paralleling the Targumic theme of divine command (often expressed through Memra). From a Qur’ānic perspective, divine revelation is bestowed through God’s command (amr) and conveyed by the angels to His chosen servants as rūḥ (Spirit),[11] just as in the Hebrew Bible the Servant’s prophetic role is authenticated by receiving the spirit. Speaking of the connection between rūḥ (spirit) and amr (command), the Qur’ān applies it directly to the prophetic experience of Muhammad (pbuh).[12] Commenting on Qur’ān 42:52, Ghāmidi writes:

The reality of whatever emanates directly from God is called rūḥ by the Qur’ān. This is God’s directive (amr), which at times assumes the shape of a word (kalimah) and at times a spirit (rūḥ). Verse 85 of Sūrah Banī Isrā’īl: الرُّوۡحُ مِنۡ اَمۡرِ رَبِّيۡ and here the words مِّنۡ اَمۡرِنَا point to this. The purpose is to warn the addressees that rūḥ is from the matters of the unseen; hence, no one can understand its reality and nature in this world, and no one should also go after trying to understand it.[13]

The Servant’s Primary Task: mišpāṭ laggōyīm yōṣî

Having provided an introductory description of the Servant, Isaiah 42:1 ends with a delineation of the Servant’s primary task, i.e., מִשְׁפָּט לַגֹּויִם יֹוצִֽיא (he shall bring forth judgement to the gōyīm). The Servant is upheld, chosen, and bestowed with the spirit in order to complete the task of bringing forth mišpāṭ to the gōyīm. The word mišpāṭ occurs thrice in Isaiah 42:1-4 and seems to be crucial in identifying the Servant figure. Traditionally, classical Bible translations, such as the King James Version (KJV), have rendered mišpāṭ as "judgement." This choice reflects the term's association with legal decisions, verdicts, and the act of deciding cases, emphasising the pronouncement of judicial decisions. In contrast, many modern translations, including the New International Version (NIV) and the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), prefer the term "justice" when translating mišpāṭ. Modern translators often opt for "justice" to resonate with contemporary readers' emphasis on social justice and ethical conduct, reflecting an evolved understanding of the term's application in today's context.

Divine Judgement, Social Justice, or Religious Ordinances?

Interpreting mišpāṭ as social justice or even religious ordinances may be a plausible reading; however, its primary weakness lies in its tendency to isolate verses 1–4 from their immediate literary context, treating them as a self-contained passage rather than considering their broader thematic and structural coherence.

The immediate context of Isaiah 42:1–4 situates the passage within a broader “trial scene,” where God’s sovereignty as the Creator and Master of history is contrasted with the impotence of false gods. This setting strongly suggests that mišpāṭ in this passage should be understood as divine judgement rather than social justice. Throughout the surrounding chapters of Isaiah, courtroom imagery is prominent, particularly in God’s challenge to the nations and their idols to present their case (Isa. 41:1, 21–24). The nations are metaphorically summoned before God’s tribunal, where He declares His verdict over them, demonstrating His supreme authority. This judicial motif continues in Isaiah 42, where the Servant is introduced as the one who will bring forth mišpāṭ to the gōyīm. Given the prevailing language, mišpāṭ here most naturally aligns with the idea of divine adjudication, wherein the Servant acts as the agent through whom God’s sovereign verdict is executed.

Moreover, the Hebrew verb יָצָא (yāṣāʾ, “bring forth”) used with mišpāṭ in Isaiah 42:1 seems to further support this interpretation, as it is used in legal contexts to denote the pronouncement or execution of a judicial decision. The connection becomes even clearer when examining Isaiah 42:13, where God is depicted as a warrior (gibbôr) marching forth (yāṣāʾ) to battle, reinforcing the theme of divine intervention against the nations. This parallel strongly suggests that the mišpāṭ the Servant brings forth is not merely a set of laws, ordinances, or some sort of social justice but a decisive, authoritative judgement that determines the fate of the people. Thus, in the immediate context of Isaiah’s trial scene, mišpāṭ functions as a declaration of divine sovereignty, manifesting in God’s judgement over the world rather than a general call for social justice.

Corresponding Interpretations (LXX and the Isaiah Targum)

The interpretation of mišpāṭ in Isaiah 42:1 as divine judgement rather than social justice finds strong support in ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible, particularly the Targum and the Septuagint (LXX). Both of these influential versions render mišpāṭ with words that carry explicit judicial connotations.

The Targum Jonathan translates mišpāṭ in Isaiah 42:1 as דִּין (dīn), a word that explicitly conveys legal judgement, verdict, or decision. The verse in the Targum reads:

הָא עַבְדִי מְשִׁיחָא אֶקְרְבִינֵהּ בְּחִירִי דְאִתְרְעֵי בֵּיהּ מֵימְרִי אֶתֵּן רוּחָא דְקוּדְשִׁי עֲלוֹהִי דִינִין לְעַמְמִין יְגַלֵי

Behold, my servant, the Messiah, whom I bring, my chosen in whom one delights: as for my Word, I will put my Holy Spirit upon him; he shall reveal my judgement unto the nations.[14]

The use of dīn in the Targum is significant because this word in Aramaic consistently refers to legal proceedings, judicial verdicts, and divine sentencing.[15] In numerous other passages of the Targumic corpus, dīn is employed in legal contexts, reinforcing its strong association with the courtroom setting rather than ethical reform.

The LXX translates mišpāṭ in Isaiah 42:1 as κρίσις (krīsis), a term that unequivocally refers to judgement, a judicial decision, or a legal verdict in Greek. The LXX renders the verse as

ιακωβ ὁ παῖς μου ἀντιλήμψομαι αὐτοῦ ισραηλ ὁ ἐκλεκτός μου προσεδέξατο αὐτὸν ἡ ψυχή μου ἔδωκα τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπ' αὐτόν κρίσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν ἐξοίσει

Iakob is my servant; I will lay hold of him; Israel is my chosen; my soul has accepted him; I have put my spirit upon him; he will bring forth judgement to the nations.[16]

The use of κρίσις (krīsis) in the LXX translation of Isaiah 42:1 is significant because it consistently conveys the sense of judicial decision, legal verdict, or divine sentencing throughout the Greek Old Testament. Unlike alternative Greek words such as δικαιοσύνη (dikaiosynē, “righteousness” or “justice”) or διάταγμα (diátagma, “ordinance” or “statute”), which could have been used to emphasise social justice or legal codes, krīsis aligns more closely with the forensic and adjudicative themes present in the surrounding context of Isaiah 42.

According to the Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, the LXX translators regularly rendered mišpāṭ as krīsis when the term carried strong judicial connotations. The standard translation of mišpāṭ as krīma or krīsis suggests that the LXX translators were emphasising the declarative and judicial aspect of God’s intervention, rather than viewing the Servant’s role as one of merely establishing ethical norms or societal fairness.[17] It further elaborates that this rendering singled out the aspect of decision-making within the divine administration of justice. The translators appear to have deliberately chosen a term that conveys the execution of God’s sovereign judgement over the nations.

The preposition ל used in this context can function as either a terminative lamed or a disadvantage lamed. Consequently, the judgement may be understood in two ways: either as a verdict in favour of ("for" or "to") the gōyīm, or as a judgement pronounced against them. This means that the Servant’s role in bringing forth judgement could either signify a positive decree benefiting the nations or, conversely, a negative judicial pronouncement, contingent upon how the gōyīm respond.

When exploring Isaiah 42:1–4, particularly the Servant’s role in bringing forth “judgement” (Heb. מִשְׁפָּט/mišpāṭ) upon the nations rather than mere social justice, we now turn to the question of how this role finds clear parallels in Islamic sources—and indeed realisation—in the person of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). In the broader Qur’ānic perspective and the established practice of God (Sunnat Allāh)[18] regarding His messengers, we see a remarkably similar pattern of (1) the conclusive communication of God’s truth, (2) a “trial scene” culminating in a worldly judgement, and (3) a resulting “verdict” executed against those who persist in wilful denial.

In the Qur’ānic conception of prophethood (Nubuwwah) and messengerhood (Risālah),[19] especially as explained by prominent scholars of the Farāhī school,[20] prophets in general (anbiyāʾ) come to remind humanity of God’s guidance and warn them about God’s Judgement in the next world, while certain prophets elevated to the status of “messengers” (rusul) are additionally entrusted with the power to implement divine judgement in this very world on their immediate addressees. The latter dynamic strongly resonates with the portrait of the Servant in Isaiah 42, who not only proclaims God’s will to the nations/Gentiles but also enforces His sovereign verdict among them.

In the Qur’ān, every messenger (rasūl) is mandated, after fulfilling his role of warning (indhār) and bearing witness (shahādah), to serve as the instrument of God’s final judgement upon his addressees in this very world. According to many Qur’ānic passages,[21] God grants His messengers dominance over those who persist in denying the truth, while those who accept are vindicated and rewarded. For instance,

إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ يُحَآدُّونَ ٱللَّهَ وَرَسُولَهُۥٓ أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ فِى ٱلْأَذَلِّينَ. كَتَبَ ٱللَّهُ لَأَغْلِبَنَّ أَنَا۠ وَرُسُلِىٓ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ قَوِىٌّ عَزِيزٌۭ

[You should know that] those who show enmity to God and His Messenger, it is they who shall be humiliated the most. This is because God has decreed, “I and My Messengers are destined to be dominant.” In reality, God is extremely Powerful and very Mighty. (Qur’ān 58:20–21)

Here, the messenger is not delivering mere moral reforms or social programs; he is empowered to establish God’s sovereign “verdict” (akin to mišpāṭ/dīn) in the concrete setting of his own community. By contrast, prophets who do not attain the position of messengerhood (Risālah) generally warn and guide but do not enforce a decisive worldly judgement.

The Qur’ān routinely stages a moral and spiritual “trial” for each people to whom a messenger is sent.[22] In the Qur’ānic conception of messengerhood (Risālah), we see a progression from warning to implementation of Divine Judgement. The Qur’ān describes how a messenger first delivers the truth, warns his people (indhār), instructs and purifies his followers, and fully presents the case for belief so that no one can claim ignorance on the Day of Judgement. Ultimately, once the messenger has delivered God’s signs and arguments, laying bare the truth in a conclusive way (itmām al-hujjah), [23] the divine verdict is pronounced, often resulting in the establishment of God’s sovereignty among the believers and decisive punishment for those who persist in intransigence— an earthly echo of the ultimate Day of Judgement.

Isaiah 42 situates the Servant in the midst of a “trial scene,” where God challenges idolaters and false gods to defend themselves before His judgement. In an analogous manner, the Qur’ān portrays the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) declaring God’s oneness (tawḥīd) and challenging the polytheism of the Quraysh. He repeatedly invokes them to present any evidence or sanction from God for worshipping multiple deities.[24]

The Qur’ān emphasises that being a Rasūl, Muhammad (pbuh) fully established the truth before his people, leaving no room for ambiguity.[25] This viewpoint resonates with Isaiah 42’s emphasis that the Servant does not merely offer ethical teaching; rather, he arrives to deliver God’s definitive verdict. In short, both Isaiah and the Qur’ān describe a culminating “trial” in which falsehood stands exposed and truth stands vindicated.

While this idea exists in rudimentary form in the Muslim scholarly tradition,[26] it receives systematic theological expression in the writings of contemporary scholars like Amīn Aḥsan Islāḥī and Jāved Aḥmad Ghāmidī.[27] One finds a consistent pattern in the way it is described in the Qur’ān in the case of all of God’s messengers, including the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). The phases occurred as follows:

Phases of the Messenger’s Mission

• Propagation Phase (Indhār/Indhār-i-‘ām): The messenger tirelessly calls his people to worship the One God, refuting idolatry and upholding the moral code revealed by God.

• Acquittal and Migration Phase (Barā’ah/Hijrah): Once the truth has been conveyed decisively, the messenger dissociates from (and in some cases migrates away from) the persistent rejecters, signifying that they have sealed their fate.

• Judgement Phase: Finally, God’s verdict materialises in history—a miniature “Day of Judgement” on earth—by which the deniers are humbled or destroyed, and the believers receive dominance and vindication (cf. Qur’ān 58:20–21).

In Isaiah, God’s Servant enacts the ultimate “court decision.” Similarly, the Qur’ān repeatedly affirms that the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his community became the instruments for enacting God’s sovereign judgement in Arabia,[28] culminating in the conquest of Makkah[29] and the subjugation of hostile nations.[30] This historical vindication of believers and punitive action against rejecters reflects the judicial motif embedded in Isaiah 42 and Qur’ānic accounts of Risālah.

Having demonstrated how the role, mission, and divine commissioning of the Servant in Isaiah 42 find deep resonance within the Qur’ānic conception of Rasūl, especially in the prophetic history of Muhammad (pbuh), who actualised the divine verdict in the temporal world, we now turn to the identity of its recipients. What does Isaiah intend with the gōyīm? And how was this category understood in the evolving biblical tradition and later Qur’ānic discourse? A closer examination of the terminology will deepen our understanding of the Servant’s mission.

Gōyīm, ‘Ammīn and Ummiyyīn

The servant will bring forth mišpāṭ “to the Gentiles” (laggōyīm). Targum Jonathan has עַמְמִין (ʿammīn) in place of גֹּויִם (gōyīm). In the Hebrew Bible, עַם (ʿam) primarily means "people" or "nation," often referring to Israel as God's chosen people. The plural forms עממין (ʿammīn), עממים (ʿammīm), or עמים (ʿamīm), however, carry broader nuances, referring to nations or peoples generally, inclusive of Israel and non-Israelite nations alike. In early biblical usage, the term עמ (ʿam) had a neutral meaning, referring to various peoples or nations, including Israel. For instance, Exodus 6 :7 promises, “I will take you to Myself for a people (לִי לְעָם, lî leʿām) and I will be your God,” using ʿam exclusively for Israel. In Exodus 19:5–6, Israel is explicitly designated as God's treasured possession from among all peoples (כָּל־הָעַמִּים, kol-haʿamīm), indicating a collective meaning of peoples beyond Israel itself. Similarly, Genesis 17:16 employs עַמִּים (ʿamīm) broadly, promising that Sarah will be the mother of multiple peoples and nations, thereby extending beyond the Israelite lineage alone. However, as Jewish identity became more defined in opposition to surrounding cultures, particularly in the exilic and post-exilic periods, ʿam in the plural form took on more negative connotations, representing gentile nations distinct from Israel, often depicted as antagonistic to divine rule.

Similarly, the term עַם הָאָרֶץ (ʿam hāʾāreṣ) underwent a significant transformation. It has several meanings depending on the historical and textual context in which it is used. In early biblical texts, it simply referred to the inhabitants of a given land, whether Israelite or not. Genesis 23:7 describes the natives as ʿam hāʾāreṣ, showing its original neutral usage. However, in post-exilic texts such as Ezra-Nehemiah, ʿam hāʾāreṣ begins to carry a pejorative sense. Ezra 4:4 speaks of "the people of the land" discouraging the returning Jews from rebuilding the Temple, associating them with opposition and impurity. This shift reflects a growing concern among Jewish leaders about maintaining religious purity and separation from foreign influences, particularly after the Babylonian exile.

The connection between ʿammīn/ʿamīm and ʿam hāʾāreṣ becomes even more pronounced in Second-Temple sectarian literature. During the post-exilic and Second-Temple period, the term shifted from a neutral “peoples” (including Israel) to an exclusivist label for Gentile nations, or even the unlearned “people of the land”, especially in apocalyptic and sectarian writings. This trajectory contributed to the later, common identification of עממין with Gentiles in rabbinic discourse.

This semantic evolution within the Jewish tradition has strong parallels in the Qur’ānic usage of the terms الْأُمِّيُّون (al-Ummiyyūn) and ٱلْأُمِّيِّـۧنَ (al-Ummiyyīn). The Qur’ān employs this term to describe the Arabs, particularly the descendants of Ishmael, who had no formal association with divine scripture or religious law. In Qur’ān 3:20, the term أُمِّيُّون (Ummiyyūn) is used in contrast to the "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab), denoting those who had not received a divine scripture. Another important occurrence of this term appears in Qur’ān 2:78:

وَمِنْهُمْ أُمِّيُّونَ لَا يَعْلَمُونَ الْكِتَابَ إِلَّا أَمَانِيَّ وَإِنْ هُمْ إِلَّا يَظُنُّونَ

And there are also among them Ummiyyūn who consider the Book of God to be only a collection of [their] fancies and act only on their conjecture.[31]

Here, the term Ummiyyūn is used for a segment of the Israelites who, despite belonging to a scriptural community, lack actual knowledge of the Book. The verse criticises them for relying only on amāniyy (wishful thinking or false hopes) instead of true understanding. This suggests that Ummiyyūn does not inherently mean ‘illiterate’ or ‘unlettered’ but refers to those who are uninformed about divine revelation. It also highlights a critical distinction within a religious community—some may have the scripture but lack real engagement with it, just as with the use of the term ʿammīn in post-exilic texts and early Second Temple writings.

While the Qur’ān uses this term for the Arabs, it has also been used as a title for the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). In Qur’ān 7:157, he is called النَّبِيّ الْأُمِّيّ (al-Nabī al-Ummī), which has often been interpreted incorrectly as "the unlettered Prophet." However, given the broader Qur’ānic context, a more precise understanding aligns with the idea that he was a prophet raised among a nation that had not previously received a divine book.[32]

The Qur’ān also uses the term in 3:75.[33] Here, Ummiyyīn refers to non-Jews, particularly Arabs, whom certain People of the Book (likely some Jewish groups) deemed unworthy of ethical treatment. The verse criticises this belief and their claim that there was no moral obligation towards the Ummiyyīn i.e., the Gentiles.

In light of this analysis, Isaiah’s portrayal of the Servant as bringing forth mišpāṭ to the Gentiles resonates profoundly with the Qur’ānic portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his mission. Just as Isaiah situates the Servant within a divine courtroom drama, where the nations are subjected to God’s authoritative verdict, the Qur’ān explicitly depicts the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as a messenger who conclusively delivers God’s judgement upon the communities he addressed, particularly among the Arabs who previously lacked divine scripture (Ummiyyīn). His mission similarly culminates in a decisive "trial" scenario, clearly articulating divine truth, confronting idolatry, and executing God's final verdict upon those who persist in denial.

Thus, Isaiah's servant bringing mišpāṭ to the gōyīm closely mirrors the Prophet Muhammad's Qur’ānic role of establishing God's judgement among the Ummiyyīn—historically actualised through his prophetic ministry, the decisive defeat of polytheism in Arabia, and the establishment of a divinely ordained community governed explicitly by the revealed law. This remarkable alignment underscores the compelling identification of Isaiah’s Servant with the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), whose historical legacy distinctly fulfils the prophetic vision articulated in Isaiah 42.

The Servant’s Quiet but Transformative Presence

The phrase לֹ֥א יִצְעַ֖ק וְלֹ֣א יִשָּׂ֑א in Isaiah 42:2 consists of two key verbs: יִצְעַ֖ק (yiṣʿaq) and יִשָּׂ֑א (yiśśā). The verb צָעַק (ṣā‘aq) commonly means "to cry out," often in the sense of calling for help, making a loud proclamation, or expressing distress. It appears in various contexts in the Hebrew Bible, sometimes referring to cries of suffering (e.g., Exod. 3:7, where God hears the cries of the Israelites in Egypt) and sometimes to loud public proclamations (e.g., Jonah 3:8, where the people of Nineveh are commanded to cry out to God). The verb נָשָׂא (nāśā’) in its basic sense means "to lift," and in this construction, it is often understood elliptically as "to lift up the voice," implying a raised, loud speech, whether in proclamation or protest. The combination of לֹ֥א יִצְעַ֖ק וְלֹ֣א יִשָּׂ֑א thus suggests that the Servant neither cries out loudly nor raises his voice in a tone of complaint.

Rather than interpreting this phrase merely as a description of the Servant’s speaking style—suggesting that he does not engage in loud public preaching—this passage can be understood as an expression of the Servant’s inner disposition and manner of facing opposition. The absence of ṣā‘aq (crying out) can indicate that the Servant does not complain or express distress when confronted with difficulties, while the absence of nāśā’ (raising the voice) suggests a refusal to respond to personal hostility with aggression or self-defence. This interpretation aligns with broader biblical and Qur’ānic portrayals of righteous individuals who bear trials with patience and steadfastness. In the Qur’ān, similar traits are attributed to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). For instance, Qur’ān 73:10 commands the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) to "bear with patience what they say, and graciously ignore them," reflecting the idea that God’s messengers do not respond to opposition with anger or loud protest but rather with quiet endurance. The Qur’ānic portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as someone who was frequently insulted yet never wavered in his mission, and never complained (Qur’ān 6:33-34), further reinforces this reading. Thus, Isaiah 42:2 presents the Servant as embodying a quiet strength—one who neither laments his difficulties nor forcefully asserts himself, but instead perseveres with patience, trusting in divine justice rather than seeking vindication through human means.[34]

The second part of Isaiah 42:2, וְלֹ֣א יַשְׁמִ֖יעַ בַּחוּץ קוֹלֽוֹ, can be broken down into its key terms: יַשְׁמִ֖יעַ (yašmîa‘), which is the Hiphil (causative) form of שָׁמַע (šāma‘), meaning "to hear," and in this form, it means "to cause to be heard" or "to proclaim"; בַּחוּץ (baḥûṣ), meaning "in the street" or "outside"; and קוֹלֽוֹ (qōlô), meaning "his voice." The phrase, therefore, conveys that the Servant does not make his voice heard publicly, particularly in the ḥūṣ (the open space outside, often associated with markets or public gatherings).

The expression "and he will not cause his voice to be heard in the street " (וְלֹ֣א יַשְׁמִ֖יעַ בַּחוּץ קוֹלֽוֹ) is simply revealing some personal traits of the Servant—indicating that he is not a loud or disruptive figure in public—this would highlight his quiet and composed demeanour. This reading would suggest that the Servant is characterised by restraint, dignity, and an aversion to ostentation. Unlike figures who seek public attention through loud proclamations or forceful speech, the Servant’s nature is one of calmness and introspection.[35]

This interpretation not only aligns with broader biblical and Qur’ānic portrayals of righteous endurance but also resonates with the biblical wisdom tradition, which associates wisdom with restraint in speech. Proverbs 29:11 states, "A fool gives full vent to his spirit, but a wise man quietly holds it back," emphasising that wisdom manifests not in loud declarations but in controlled speech. The Servant’s avoidance of noise-making in public spaces may thus be a reflection of his internal strength and wisdom.

This interpretation also resonates with the Qur’ānic ideal of humility and restraint in speech.[36] The lowering of the voice is associated with dignity and refinement of character, suggesting that a true servant of God does not seek to attract attention through loud or boastful speech. If Isaiah 42:2 is read in this manner, it would imply that the Servant's nature is fundamentally quiet and composed, someone who does not contribute to the noise and clamour of the streets but rather carries himself with a sense of quiet authority. It presents a broader picture of his temperament—one marked by an aversion to unnecessary public spectacle and an embodiment of humility. In this way, the Servant emerges as a figure of deep inner strength, whose influence is not rooted in outward displays of power but in the quiet force of his character.

A Bruised Reed and the Smoking Flax

The phrase "A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench" (Isa. 42:3) is one of the most evocative descriptions of the Servant’s character and mission. The imagery of the bruised reed (קָנֶה רָצוּץ, qāneh rāṣûṣ) and the smoking flax (פִּשְׁתָּה כֵּהָה, p̄ištāh ḵēhāh) conveys a profound sense of gentleness, patience, and restorative care. These metaphors depict individuals who are fragile, weak, or on the verge of being extinguished—whether in a physical, moral, or spiritual sense—yet the Servant does not dismiss or destroy them. Rather, his approach is marked by a compassionate restraint that fosters healing and renewal.

The reed in ancient Near Eastern contexts was a common plant, often used for simple tools or writing instruments. A bruised reed, bent and weakened, would typically be discarded as worthless. However, the Servant does not break it, suggesting that he does not reject those who are weakened by suffering, oppression, or sin. Similarly, the smoking flax—which refers to a wick that is barely flickering and producing more smoke than light—symbolises those whose faith, hope, or strength is nearly extinguished. Instead of snuffing it out, the Servant carefully preserves it, allowing it the opportunity to be reignited. This imagery aligns with the broader biblical and prophetic theme of God’s mercy towards the vulnerable, as seen in passages such as Psalm 34:18, "The Lord is near to the broken-hearted and saves the crushed in spirit."

This description of the Servant’s mission resonates deeply with the Qur’ānic portrayal of prophetic mercy and forbearance.[37] The Servant’s refusal to break the bruised reed or quench the smoking flax mirrors the prophetic principle of nurturing even the weakest souls, guiding them rather than condemning them. However, the Servant’s mission is not merely one of passive tolerance but of active restoration. He does not merely refrain from breaking what is already weak—he preserves and strengthens it. In this sense, the bruised reed and smoking flax could symbolise the spiritually weak, the oppressed, or even those who have strayed morally yet are still within the realm of divine guidance. This imagery finds compelling resonance in the Qur’ānic portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as one who "removes their burdens and the shackles that were upon them" (Qur’ān 7:157), indicating a mission that seeks to uplift those struggling under the weight of their own weaknesses. In this sense, the bruised reed and smoking flax could symbolise the people of Israel in their spiritually weakened state and possibly even the hypocrites (munāfiqūn) among the Prophet’s followers, who outwardly professed belief but internally worked against him.

The Servant does not immediately punish or abandon them, just as the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) showed patience towards the hypocrites in his community and the hypocritical people in the Madīnan Jewish community, giving them the opportunity to reform. His leniency towards figures such as Abdullāh ibn Ubayy, the leader of the hypocrites in Madīnah, exemplifies this principle. Despite Ibn Ubayy’s well-documented efforts to undermine the Prophet, he was never punished or executed, and upon his death, the Prophet even offered his shirt to shroud him and initially intended to lead his funeral prayer. This remarkable act of mercy mirrors the Servant’s refusal to "break the bruised reed or quench the smoking flax," reflecting the broader prophetic tradition of patience, guidance, and the gradual unfolding of divine judgement.

However, the Servant is not merely a figure of leniency—he is also the bearer of judgement. The verse concludes with the statement that he shall "bring forth judgement unto truth," reinforcing that his mission balances mercy with unwavering moral standards. His tenderness towards the weak does not mean a compromise on truth. Similarly, Qur’ān 3:159-160 captures this dual quality of the Prophet, describing his gentleness towards the believers while also commanding him to act with decisive leadership and to trust in God’s justice. The Servant, therefore, is not a leader who accommodates moral weakness indefinitely but one who seeks to nurture those who struggle while upholding the highest standards of righteousness.

This passage also suggests a contrast between the Servant and worldly rulers, particularly those who exercise their authority through force or disregard for the weak. While kings and rulers may trample over a bruised reed and snuff out the smoking flax in pursuit of power or efficiency, the Servant stands apart, embodying patience, gradual reform, and redemption. This is not a ruler who imposes his authority through coercion but one who leads through quiet endurance and moral integrity. His strength lies not in crushing opposition but in sustaining those who are on the brink of despair.

In an eschatological sense, the passage also suggests that the Servant's work is not yet complete; the bruised reed and smoking flax indicate an ongoing struggle, a community still in need of restoration. Yet his mission is one of perseverance, not destruction. This aligns with the Qur’ānic emphasis on divine patience in the unfolding of judgement/decision and the gradual process of human transformation.[38] The Servant’s method, therefore, is not one of immediate judgement but of gradual healing and reformation, ensuring that those who still have the potential to be uplifted are not cast aside.

Ultimately, the metaphor of a bruised reed and smoking flax captures the essence of the Servant’s mission: a leadership that prioritises compassion over condemnation, redemption over rejection, and patience over force. His leadership is marked not by the crushing of opposition, but by sustaining and restoring it, ensuring that even those who are faltering still have the opportunity to return to the path of truth.[39] This model challenges traditional notions of power and justice, presenting a vision of divine servanthood that elevates the weak rather than discarding them.

Endurance Amid Opposition: The Ultimate Fulfilment

Isaiah 42:4 presents a climactic affirmation of the Servant’s unwavering endurance and commitment to his mission, stating, "He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he have set judgement in the earth: and the isles shall wait for his law." The Hebrew text employs two key verbs—יִכְהֶה (yiḵę ̄h) and יָרוּץ (yārûṣ)—often translated as "fail" and "be discouraged." However, these words carry deeper connotations of exhaustion and breaking down under pressure. The verb יָכֶה (yiḵę ̄h) is derived from כָּהָה (kāhāh), which signifies becoming dim, faint, or weakened, often used metaphorically for losing vitality or strength. Similarly, יָרוּץ (yārûṣ), from the root רוּץ (rûṣ), conveys the idea of being crushed, broken, or discouraged under hardship. Together, these terms emphasise that the Servant will neither grow weary nor succumb to disillusionment, regardless of the challenges he faces.[40] His resolve remains unshaken until he successfully establishes divine judgement (mišpāṭ) on the earth.[41] The expression “in the earth” (בָּאָ֖רֶץ) can also be rendered “in the land,” implying a defined territory—a nuance that becomes evident in vv. 10–12.

This unshakeable endurance is the defining characteristic of the Servant. The Servant persists until he has firmly established divine judgement—not in a limited or partial sense, but in a comprehensive way that transforms the moral and legal order of the world around him. The phrase “till he have set judgement (mišpāṭ) in the earth” confirms that his mission is not merely advisory, nor is it left to human institutions to complete; rather, it is a divinely guided process leading to the ultimate ascendency of truth over falsehood. This aligns with Qur’ānic descriptions of the mission of messengers (rusul), which was not limited to preaching but involved the practical establishment of divine judgement.

Evidence from the text of the Qur’ān and hadith reports further reinforces this mission of the Servant as bringing forth divine judgement. This closely aligns with Isaiah’s declaration that the Servant will not fail or be discouraged until he has established judgement. The Sunnah (practice) of God in granting ultimate success to His messengers is a recurring Qur’ānic theme, as we have discussed in the previous sections. Even when the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his companions faced severe persecution in Makkah, divine assurance remained constant that Islam would ultimately triumph.[42]

Despite facing overwhelming opposition, they remained steadfast. The Qur’ānic model of prophetic endurance closely parallels Isaiah 42:4, where the Servant’s perseverance leads to the fulfilment of divine judgement on earth. The historical struggle of early Muslims in Makkah reflects this same principle—truth inevitably prevails over falsehood, and divine justice is ultimately established.

In the Makkan period of Islam, the Prophet and his followers faced relentless persecution. In such circumstances, an ordinary leader might have lost heart, but the Prophet remained committed to his mission. A powerful historical account confirms this unwavering resolve and provides a window into God’s domination of the future.

سمعت خبابا يقول أتيت النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وهو متوسد بردة وهو في ظل الكعبة وقد لقينا من المشركين شدة فقلت يا رسول الله ألا تدعو الله فقعد وهو محمر وجهه فقال لقد كان من قبلكم ليمشط بمشاط الحديد ما دون عظامه من لحم أو عصب ما يصرفه ذلك عن دينه ويوضع المنشار على مفرق رأسه فيشق باثنين ما يصرفه ذلك عن دينه وليتمن الله هذا الأمر حتى يسير الراكب من صنعاء إلى حضرموت ما يخاف إلا الله

Narrated Khabbab: I came to the Prophet while he was leaning against his sheet cloak in the shade of the Ka’ba. We were suffering greatly from the pagans in those days. I said (to him), “Will you invoke God (to help us)?” He sat down with a red face and said, “(A believer among) those who were before you used to be combed with iron combs so that nothing of his flesh or nerves would remain on his bones; yet that would never make him desert his religion. A saw might be put over the parting of his head, which would be split into two parts, yet all that would never make him abandon his religion. God will surely complete this religion (i.e., Islam) so that a traveller from Sana’a to Hadramawt will not be afraid of anybody except God.”[43]

This account demonstrates the same prophetic determination described in Isaiah 42:4: "He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he have set judgement in the earth." At a time when Islam had barely a couple of hundred followers, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) confidently declared the ultimate triumph of Islam, a bold prophecy vindicated within his own lifetime.

Similarly, when Abū Dhar embraced Islam—becoming the sixth or seventh person to do so during the early Makkan period—the Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have said to him:

O Abū Dhar! Keep your conversion a secret and return to your town; and when you hear of our victory, return to us.[44]

This assurance of victory at such an early stage echoes the Servant’s divine commission in Isaiah 42:4, wherein he does not become discouraged despite immense opposition, knowing that his mission will ultimately prevail.

This mirrors the Qur’ānic declaration:

هُوَ ٱلَّذِىٓ أَرْسَلَ رَسُولَهُۥ بِٱلْهُدَىٰ وَدِينِ ٱلْحَقِّ لِيُظْهِرَهُۥ عَلَى ٱلدِّينِ كُلِّهِۦ وَلَوْ كَرِهَ ٱلْمُشْرِكُونَ

It is He who has sent forth His Messenger with guidance and the true religion so that He may make it prevail over all religions [of this land], however much these Idolaters may dislike it. (Qur’ān 61:9)

Muhammad’s Torah and David’s Qur’ān

The latter part of Isaiah 42:4 states, "and the isles shall wait for his law." The Hebrew word translated as ‘law’ in the KJV is תּוֹרָה (tōrāh). It is either used in a purely technical sense of the scriptures revealed to Moses (pbuh) or in a literal sense of “law” or “instruction.” The form tôrātô (with pronominal suffix) means “his torah,” i.e., the law or instruction emanating from the Servant (ultimately from God).[45] Thus, tôrātô underscores the Servant’s role not just as one who brings about divine judgement but as a teacher or lawgiver to the nations. The Servant brings a new revelation or a fresh authoritative teaching of God’s ways. The coupling of mišpāṭ (judgement) and tōrāh (instruction) in this verse is significant. It shows both the judicial aspect and the didactic aspect (bringing truth/teaching) of the Servant’s work. Both terms have strong covenantal overtones: a vision very much in line with later hopes that the Servant would be a “light of the Gentiles” (Isa. 42:6) by spreading God’s law. The mention of the Servant bringing forth a judgement (mišpāṭ), a new law/instruction (tōrāh), and the mention of a covenant in Isaiah 42:6 ahead lends strength to the idea that the Servant is a Moses-like figure.[46]

Similarly, the “isles” awaiting his tōrāh suggests the distant peoples are longing for divine teaching and truth. This expression is equivalent to saying that people would be desirous of receiving the Servant’s message and divine guidance and wait eagerly for it.

The Qur’ān affirms this vision of a comprehensive transformation, which foretells Islam’s triumph in the very lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh):

إِذَا جَآءَ نَصْرُ ٱللَّهِ وَٱلْفَتْحُ . وَرَأَيْتَ ٱلنَّاسَ يَدْخُلُونَ فِى دِينِ ٱللَّهِ أَفْوَاجًۭا . فَسَبِّحْ بِحَمْدِ رَبِّكَ وَٱسْتَغْفِرْهُ ۚ إِنَّهُۥ كَانَ تَوَّابًۢا .

When comes the help of God and that victory; And you see men embrace the religion of God in multitudes; extol His glory while being thankful to Him, and seek His forgiveness. For, indeed, He is ever disposed to mercy. (Qur’ān 110:1-3)

Explaining this prophecy, Imām Amīn Ahsan Islāhī writes:

This is the most prominent feature of the victory referred to above. The Prophet’s conflict with his tribe was not because of any worldly reason; it was only for the religion of God. He wanted the leaders of the Quraysh to fulfil their obligations towards the House of God because they were its custodians. If they were not ready for this, then they had no right to keep it in their custody, nor did they have any right to stop people through persecution and coercion from embracing the religion of God. It was to eliminate the religious coercion (called fitnah by the Qur’ān) that the only hindrance to people in embracing faith was the wave of intimidation and coercion let loose by the leaders, and the commoners had no ill-will against the faith they were being called to. Hence, as soon as the shackles of this duress and oppression were broken, people hastened to accept Islam in multitudes. Before the conquest of Makkah, people who would come to the Prophet (pbuh) to profess faith would come in fright and fear. Up to that time, even uttering a word of sympathy for Islam was dangerous for people, let alone embracing it. We have already mentioned earlier that during that time when certain delegations of the Ansār came to pledge allegiance to the Prophet (pbuh), the leaders of Quraysh struck fear in them by saying that this pledge was tantamount to declaring war on both the Arabs and the non-Arabs. Obviously, in the presence of such intimidation and fright, only those people could have had the guts to accept Islam who had the resolve to fight mountains; however, once this atmosphere of coercion was brought to an end, no hindrance remained in accepting faith. Such was the avid manner in which people started to come to Makkah as if they needed to quench their thirst from a spring, which provides the water of immortality.

It was this conquest that changed the entire complexion of Arabia to the extent that people were suddenly afforded with the liberty to choose their own religion, and the wave of coercion and terror let loose by the Quraysh, on the basis of which they had become virtual masters of the faith and destiny of people, was brought to an end. Veiled in these glad tidings was the news to the Prophet (pbuh) that soon the time would come when the people would rush towards Islam with total freedom from the shackles of the Quraysh. This is very strong evidence that the victory referred to here is the conquest of Makkah. There is no other victory which produced such results.[47]

Chapter Summary

Isaiah 42:1–4 introduces a figure known as “the Servant,” presenting both his identity and his divinely ordained mission. The text intertwines prophetic and royal features, portraying the Servant not merely as a political leader but as one endowed with spiritual authority and prophecy. The Hebrew term עַבְדִּי (“My Servant”) highlights God’s special relationship with this chosen individual, whom He upholds and sustains. Parallel concepts in Islamic sources—where the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is similarly called God’s Servant (ʿabd)—reinforce the motif of divinely supported leadership anchored in humility.

From the outset, the Servant is “chosen” (בְּחִירִי) and bears God’s spirit (רוּחִי) upon him. Within the Hebrew Bible, receiving God’s spirit often signifies prophetic empowerment, enabling the recipient to declare and enact divine will. Rabbinic and medieval Jewish commentators, such as Ibn Ezra, link the phrase “My spirit” to prophecy, aligning with the wider biblical tradition in which prophets declare God’s messages after being filled with His spirit. The Aramaic Targum further underscores this by using “Memra,” conveying divine command, whereas in the Qurʾan, God’s command (amr) and spirit (rūḥ) frequently appear together to describe revelation conveyed to messengers.

Isaiah 42 repeatedly emphasises the Servant’s central task: to bring forth mišpāṭ (commonly translated as “judgement,” “justice,” or “divine verdict”) to the nations (גֹּויִם). While modern translations sometimes opt for “justice,” the immediate context—God’s trial scene with the nations—suggests a judicial decision. In antiquity, the Aramaic Targum rendered mišpāṭ as דִּין (“legal verdict”), and the Septuagint employed κρίσις (“judgement”). Both terms underscore a forensic dimension: God’s sovereign decision announced and effectuated among the peoples. Islamic tradition similarly describes the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as not only delivering God’s guidance but also establishing a culminating judgement in his own historical context—a terrestrial echo of final divine justice.

Verses 2–3 depict the Servant as steadfast yet gentle. He does not cry out or raise his voice in public, reflecting a quiet composure rather than aggressive protest. This comportment resonates with Qurʾanic ideals of bearing opposition patiently and refraining from anger or personal retaliation. The “bruised reed” and “smoking flax” imagery underscores the Servant’s compassionate approach: he does not break or quench that which is fragile or barely alight. Instead, he tends and nurtures the weak, suggesting a leadership style that prioritises redemption over destruction. This aligns possibly with Qurʾanic narratives wherein the Prophet (pbuh) showed clemency even towards staunch adversaries or hypocrites, granting them opportunities for moral and spiritual reform.

Finally, Isaiah 42:4 highlights the Servant’s unwavering perseverance. He will not fail or be discouraged until mišpāṭ is firmly established “in the earth” and the “isles” eagerly await his instruction (תּוֹרָה). In Hebraic usage, tōrāh can signify comprehensive divine guidance—echoing the revealed law of Moses (pbuh)—and here it denotes the Servant’s authoritative teaching recognised by far-flung peoples. Islamic sources present a parallel arc: despite severe persecution, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) remained confident in God’s eventual succour, a promise culminating in Islam’s swift expansion and the adoption of divine guidance by entire tribes and regions.

He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he have set judgement in the earth: and the isles shall wait for his law. [Isaiah 42:4]

4.2.         Isaiah 42:5-9

​ 5​ ​כֹּֽה־אָמַר הָאֵל ׀ יְהוָה בֹּורֵא הַשָּׁמַיִם וְנֹוטֵיהֶם רֹקַע הָאָרֶץ וְצֶאֱצָאֶיהָ נֹתֵן נְשָׁמָה לָעָם עָלֶיהָ וְרוּחַ לַהֹלְכִים בָּֽהּ׃ ​ 6​ ​אֲנִי יְהוָה קְרָאתִיךָֽ בְצֶדֶק וְאַחְזֵק בְּיָדֶךָ וְאֶצָּרְךָ וְאֶתֶּנְךָ לִבְרִית עָם לְאֹור גֹּויִֽם׃ ​ 7​ ​לִפְקֹחַ עֵינַיִם עִוְרֹות לְהֹוצִיא מִמַּסְגֵּר אַסִּיר מִבֵּית כֶּלֶא יֹשְׁבֵי חֹֽשֶׁךְ׃ ​ 8​ ​אֲנִי יְהוָה הוּא שְׁמִי וּכְבֹודִי לְאַחֵר לֹֽא־אֶתֵּן וּתְהִלָּתִי לַפְּסִילִֽים׃ ​ 9​ ​הָרִֽאשֹׁנֹות הִנֵּה־בָאוּ וַֽחֲדָשֹׁות אֲנִי מַגִּיד בְּטֶרֶם תִּצְמַחְנָה אַשְׁמִיע אֶתְכֶֽם׃ פ

Translation (The King James Version)

Thus saith God the LORD, he that created the heavens, and stretched them out; he that spread forth the earth, and that which cometh out of it; he that giveth breath unto the people upon it, and spirit to them that walk therein: I the LORD have called thee in righteousness, and will hold thine hand, and will keep thee, and give thee for a covenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles; To open the blind eyes, to bring out the prisoners from the prison, and them that sit in darkness out of the prison house. I am the LORD: that is my name: and my glory will I not give to another, neither my praise to graven images. Behold, the former things are come to pass, and new things do I declare: before they spring forth I tell you of them.

God’s Creative Power and Sovereignty

Having traced the Servant's gentle yet unyielding role in bringing forth divine judgement, the focus of the narrative shifts from indirect description to a direct divine address. No longer spoken of in the third person, the Servant is now personally summoned by God, his mission placed firmly within the vast framework of God's creative sovereignty and covenantal purpose. This transition marks a deepening of the prophetic revelation, moving from portrayal to commissioning. Just as all of creation relies on God to fulfil its purpose, so too will the Servant depend entirely on divine support to accomplish his appointed task. This theme of the Servant’s reliance on God and the consequent divine support is further elaborated in verse 6.

Isaiah 42:5 presents a theological parallel between the phrases “נְשָׁמָה (nĕšāmāh, breath)” and “רוּחַ (rūaḥ, wind, air, spirit, breath).” While these terms can carry distinct meanings, they often overlap in conveying the concept of life and divine sustenance. The repetition of thought in the verse, where God is described as giving breath (נְשָׁמָה) to people and spirit (רוּחַ) to those who walk upon the earth, emphasises that God is the ultimate source of life, without whom existence itself would be impossible. This portrayal of God’s creative power explicitly contrasts with the surrounding context, where idols are condemned as lifeless and impotent. Unlike the false gods who cannot create, sustain, or supply life, the Lord of the heavens and earth is genuinely worthy of worship. His sovereignty assures that whatever He declares will inevitably come to pass. Therefore, the commission He extends to the Servant—equipping him for a life-giving mission,[48] carries the weight of guaranteed fulfilment.

Bĕṣeḏeq as a Judicial and Eschatological Principle

In Isaiah 42:6 God directly addresses the Servant with the words, “I have called thee in righteousness”. It introduces a significant phrase: בְּצֶדֶק (bĕṣeḏeq, "in righteousness"), describing the nature of God's “calling” and empowerment of the Servant. The Hebrew term צֶדֶק (ṣeḏeq) is traditionally translated as “righteousness,” though its semantic range extends to justice, correctness, honesty, and moral rightness. It is derived from the root צ-ד-ק (ṣ-d-q), which conveys rightness, justness, and conformity to an ideal standard.

Explaining this phrase, Goldingay and Payne write:

The complexity of the idea of ṣedeq (which we usually render 'right') is suggested by the fact that the Tg here renders it 'truth', JPS 'grace', Whitley 'power' (VT 22 [1972], p. 472), and Merendino 'salvation'. The common rendering 'justice' reminds us that ṣedeq can also move within the semantic field of the courtroom along with mišpāṭ ('decision/judgement'), with which it shares a capacity to refer both to matters concerned with Yhwh's sovereign purpose in the world and to matters concerning the earthly court.[49]

From the outset of the chapter, the prophet employs terms like מִשְׁפָּט (mišpāṭ) not as a static notion of civil justice, but as a divine, eschatological intervention that purges iniquity and restores covenant fidelity among God's people. This trajectory underpins the later “Servant” passages, culminating in Isaiah 42 with the Servant’s commission to bring mišpāṭ to the nations. Verse 6, in particular, can be read as the Servant’s mandate to administer this judgement in true justice.

Thus, when God declares, “I have called you in ṣedeq,” it is not merely an affirmation of moral uprightness but a mission statement aligning the Servant with the eschatological and judicial program already introduced in verses 1-4. Read thus, בְּצֶדֶק (bĕṣeḏeq) becomes a summons for the Servant to preside in God’s stead, ensuring that no one is denied justice—a motif that finds a notable parallel in Qur’ānic notions of قِسْط (qisṭ), where the arrival of each messenger initiates a final earthly reckoning “in justice”:

وَلِكُلِّ أُمَّةٍۢ رَّسُولٌۭ ۖ فَإِذَا جَآءَ رَسُولُهُمْ

قُضِىَ بَيْنَهُم بِٱلْقِسْطِ وَهُمْ لَا يُظْلَمُونَ

[God’s law is that] for every nation (Ummah) there is a messenger (Rasūl). Then, when their messenger comes, their fate is decided with justice, and no injustice is done to them. (Qur’ān 10:47, emphasis added.)[50]

Intriguingly, in two other places describing the final divine judgement, the Qur’ān substitutes الْحَق (al-haqq) for القسط (al-qist)[51] in the same syntactic and judicial context. This strongly suggests that, in certain contexts, al-ḥaqq is semantically expansive enough to encompass or subsume qisṭ. Whereas qisṭ focuses on the procedural justice of how judgement is executed, ḥaqq points to the ontological and moral legitimacy of the verdict itself. So, the substitution underscores that God’s justice is not merely equitable but grounded in ultimate truth. His judgement is both procedurally fair (qisṭ) and metaphysically correct (ḥaqq).

This Qur’ānic dynamic enriches our understanding of Isaiah’s bĕṣeḏeq. The Servant is “called בְּצֶדֶק,” not merely to be morally upright, but called to execute divine purpose in truth, as God’s representative. Just as al-ḥaqq frames divine judgement in Qur’ān 39:69 and 39:75, so bĕṣeḏeq in Isaiah 42:6 may be read as divine rightness in action— a force that reveals, judges, and redeems. Both Isaiah and the Qur’ān portray eschatological judgement, whether earthly or heavenly, not as mechanical fairness alone, but as God’s truth— radiant, undeniable, and corrective— manifest in the moral order.

Having established this robust conceptual foundation of bĕṣeḏeq as divine judicial truth and eschatological purpose, the rest of Isaiah 42:6 naturally unfolds as a further explanation of this judicial empowerment. God declares, “I will hold thine hand, and will keep thee, and give thee for a covenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles.” Thus, the Servant’s calling in ṣedeq is immediately followed by concrete divine actions—holding, protecting, and presenting the Servant as a covenantal mediator and a source of enlightenment. The judicial and restorative role of the Servant, grounded in ṣedeq, now extends into covenantal significance and universal enlightenment, illuminating not merely a juridical act but a comprehensive, transformative mission.

Divine Support and Protection for the Servant

The eschatological purpose of establishing judgement, as articulated in Isaiah 42:6, necessitates extraordinary divine support. This is vividly expressed through the figurative language employed in the phrase, “I will hold thine hand, and will keep thee.” These words emphasise the Servant's role as an instrument or vessel through which divine judgement will be realised, underscoring that the Servant's actions are ultimately orchestrated and empowered by God Himself. Consequently, the Servant's success and safety rest entirely upon divine protection, eliminating any threats or conspiracies devised by adversaries.

The imagery of God holding the hand of His Servant finds a profound parallel in the historical experiences of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), as documented in both the Qur’ān and other historical records. The Qur’ān explicitly portrays instances where God's active intervention was evident in supporting and safeguarding the Prophet. One significant historical manifestation of divine judgement occurred at the Battle of Badr, wherein a vastly outnumbered and poorly armed Muslim force decisively defeated the significantly stronger pagan army. The Qur’ān vividly captures the theological import of this event:

فَلَمْ تَقْتُلُوْهُمْ وَلٰكِنَّ اللّٰهَ قَتَلَهُمْ ۠ وَمَا رَمَيْتَ اِذْ رَمَيْتَ وَلٰكِنَّ اللّٰهَ رَمٰى ۚ وَلِيُبْلِيَ الْمُؤْمِنِيْنَ مِنْهُ بَلَاۗءً حَسَنًا ۭاِنَّ اللّٰهَ سَمِيْعٌ عَلِيْمٌ . ذٰلِكُمْ وَاَنَّ اللّٰهَ مُوْهِنُ كَيْدِ الْكٰفِرِيْنَ. اِنْ تَسـْتَفْتِحُوْا فَقَدْ جَاۗءَكُمُ الْفَتْحُ ۚ وَاِنْ تَنْتَهُوْا فَهُوَ خَيْرٌ لَّكُمْ ۚ وَاِنْ تَعُوْدُوْا نَعُدْ ۚ وَلَنْ تُغْنِيَ عَنْكُمْ فِئَتُكُمْ شَـيْــــًٔـا وَّلَوْ كَثُرَتْ ۙ وَاَنَّ اللّٰهَ مَعَ الْمُؤْمِنِيْنَ .

[Believers! Why should you show reluctance when God fights from your side?] So, in reality, you did not slay them [in this battle]; it is, in fact, God Who has slain them, and [O Prophet] when you threw [dust] on them, it was not you but God Who has thrown it to show various aspects of His majesty to the disbelievers and to grant a goodly favour from Himself to the Muslims. Indeed, God sees and hears all. All this that happened is in front of you and with it this [glad tiding] also that God shall certainly humble all the plans of these disbelievers. If you had wanted a judgement, then [O People of the Quraysh] this judgement has arrived. If [even now] you desist, it is better for you and if you do it again, We shall also do it again and your group, however large it may be, shall not be of any benefit to you. And fully understand that God is with the believers. (Qur’ān 8:17–19).

This passage unmistakably depicts divine intervention as the ultimate cause behind the believers’ victory, demonstrating that the Prophet and his companions were merely executing a divinely sanctioned judgement. A similar theological sentiment is reiterated in Qur’ān 9:14:

قَاتِلُوْهُمْ يُعَذِّبْهُمُ اللّٰهُ بِاَيْدِيْكُمْ وَيُخْزِهِمْ وَيَنْصُرْكُمْ عَلَيْهِمْ وَيَشْفِ صُدُوْرَ قَوْمٍ مُّؤْمِنِيْنَ

Fight them; God will punish them through your hands and will humiliate them and will grant you dominance through His help and will soothe the hearts of one group of the believers [through this].

Thus, both scriptural and historical records converge in emphasising that divine judgement was enacted directly through the hands of the Prophet and his companions.

The phrase "and will keep thee" explicitly conveys the promise of divine safeguarding of the Servant. The Hebrew verb employed here, נָצַר (nāṣar, "to guard, preserve, protect"), is significant for understanding the depth and nature of divine protection promised to the Servant. This verb denotes active, vigilant safeguarding against harm or loss, emphasising God's watchfulness and continual preservation of His chosen Servant. Notably, the Septuagint (LXX) has καὶ ἐνισχύσω (kai enischysō, "and I will strengthen you"), emphasising divine empowerment and strength rather than merely protective guarding. Similarly, the Targum uses וְאַתְקְנִינָךְ (wəʾatqənînāḵ, from the root תקן, "to establish, make firm, prepare, strengthen"), further highlighting active divine preparation and empowerment of the Servant for his mission. These variant translations highlight nuances that align closely with certain Qur’ānic descriptions of divine assistance, particularly the concept of divine Nusrah (نُصْرَة, "help, victory, support"). Moreover, an analogous concept to the MT’s nāṣar in the Qur’ān is encapsulated by the term عِصْمَة (‘iṣmah), meaning divine safeguarding, protection, or preservation from harm or sin.

The Qur’ān explicitly emphasises both divine strengthening (nusrah)[52] and divine protection (‘iṣmah)[53] of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) in the context of existential threats along with the promise of “establishing”[54] his religion (Dīn) “in the land”.[55] In the prophetic career of Muhammad (pbuh), this promise materialised vividly at many instances and even during his migration from Makkah to Madīnah when he sought refuge in the cave of Thaur. Despite the intense pursuit by hostile forces intent on his demise, the Prophet was divinely protected by exceptionally effective means. This event underscored the vulnerability of human efforts against divine protection. The Qur’ān explicitly confirms this special divine safeguarding.

In summary, Isaiah 42:6’s depiction of the Servant as divinely upheld and safeguarded is powerfully illustrated in the life of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Thus, the Qur’ānic passages and historical narratives not only illuminate but enrich our understanding of the biblical passage, highlighting the profound theological convergence between these revealed texts concerning divine support, protection, and eschatological judgement.

Covenant and Light: Theological Implications

After describing the Servant's divine empowerment and protection, the verse continues to articulate further roles of the Servant in vivid and profound terms: "and give thee for a covenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles." This phrase introduces two significant roles of the Servant—serving as both a covenant (ḇrîṯ) and a source of illumination (ʾôr). Each of these terms carries deep theological implications.

The phrase לִבְרִית עָם (liḇrîṯ ʿām) has been somewhat difficult to explain for the Biblical exegetes.[56] Christopher North lists four ways that this clause has been rendered by scholars: (1) Covenant-people, (2) Covenant (-bond) of the people (that is, of Israel), (3) Covenant (-bond) of the peoples (that is, of the nations), and (4) Splendour of the people(s).[57] North tries to demonstrate how all these attempts have some problems. He carefully weighs the possible readings of בְּרִית עָם (ḇrîṯ ʿām) and argues that while some have proposed collective interpretations—viewing the Servant as Israel itself—the internal logic of the passage supports a personal, individual figure.

Among the many interpretations, one of the most linguistically and contextually plausible is to read the phrase as referring to the Servant as a covenant for the people—that is, the one through whom God enacts or mediates His covenantal purposes. This interpretation aligns with the rendering suggested by several scholars, including North, who points out that this structure makes the most grammatical and literary sense in the parallelism with the phrase that follows: “a light of the Gentiles” (אֹור גֹּויִֽם ’ôr gōyīm). If the latter clearly denotes the Servant’s role towards the Gentiles, then the former most naturally denotes his role towards Israel. According to this reading, the Servant acts as the channel through whom God's covenant is extended to Israel and light is brought to the gōyīm.

This reading not only resolves the syntactic tension but also elevates the theological richness of the text. The Servant is not merely the recipient of a covenant but its embodiment—his person and mission are themselves the medium of divine engagement with humanity. He is the ‘living covenant’,[58] through whom God initiates a new phase of redemptive history. When placed in the broader canonical and theological trajectory, this Servant resembles not merely a teacher or reformer within Israel, but a figure with a transformative global mission.[59]

Moreover, the idea of the Servant as “light of the Gentiles” powerfully evokes the imagery of revelation, guidance, and awakening. The term ʾôr (light) is consistently used in biblical literature to signify divine truth, moral clarity, and the end of spiritual darkness.[60] This motif is especially striking when seen in light of the subsequent verse (Isa. 42:7), which speaks of the Servant opening blind eyes and liberating captives from darkness—images that resonate with the work of a prophet sent not only to revive Israel but to awaken the Gentile world.

Thus, within the poetic balance of Isaiah 42:6, the Servant primarily seems to illuminate a path for the Gentiles while simultaneously providing an opportunity to bridge the bond between God and Israel. This dual mission challenges the exclusivism of national covenant theology and anticipates a broader, more inclusive divine outreach. Whether understood in historical, eschatological, or typological terms, the Servant becomes the bearer of both continuity (covenant) and expansion (light)—a figure uniquely positioned at the intersection of revelation, renewal, and universal guidance.

Blindness, Prisons, and Darkness

Building upon the theological and literary analysis of Isaiah 42:6, we now turn to verse 7, which naturally extends the Servant’s role from being a “covenant” and a “light” to a practical mission of transformation and deliverance— “To open the blind eyes, to bring out the prisoners from the prison, and them that sit in darkness out of the prison house.”

This verse unfolds the consequences of the Servant’s being a “light of the Gentiles.” His light is not abstract—it acts. It heals, liberates, and awakens. Each clause describes a dimension of human affliction and estrangement: blindness, bondage, and darkness. All three are potent metaphors for spiritual ignorance, moral stagnation, and social oppression.[61] In the biblical and prophetic tradition, these are not merely physical conditions but deeply spiritual maladies that demand a messenger sent with divine illumination.

According to Walter Brueggemann, “It is also plausible that in the ancient world (as in the contemporary world) imprisonment is primarily an economic function so that the poor are the imprisoned. This reading perhaps suggests something like the ancient Israelite practice of debt cancellation, whereby the poor may be released from prison because they are released from debt (see Deut. 15:1–11). It seems clear that the work of the Servant is indeed linked to the most elemental of human transactions, including those of an economic variety.”[62]

Muhammad— the Shining Lamp and Covenant Mediator

Having explored Isaiah 42:6-7 and its rich theological implications, we now turn our attention to the person and mission of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), highlighting the striking parallels between this description of Isaiah and his life as illuminated through the Qur’ān and the Hadith narratives.

Isaiah 42:6-7 depicts a Servant endowed by God as a "covenant" of the people and a "light" of the Gentiles. The Servant's mission includes opening blind eyes, liberating prisoners, and guiding those dwelling in darkness into divine illumination. The Prophet Muhammad's life and mission reflect these elements vividly, providing a historical and theological fulfilment of this prophetic vision.

The Qur’ān explicitly identifies Muhammad (pbuh) as the messenger who confirms previous revelations and illuminates the path of righteousness. Qur’ān 3:81-82 emphasises that God took a covenant from the Children of Israel regarding the prophets, particularly in reference to their future attitude towards subsequent messengers, who would come to affirm previous scriptures, clearly signifying the Prophet's role as the embodiment of God's final covenant.

Here, the covenant is intrinsically tied to the role of the Children of Israel as bearers and custodians of revelation (kitāb and ḥikmah).[63] The logical consequence of this status is that they were obligated, as part of their divine mandate, to affirm and support any messenger who came afterward, particularly the final Prophet, Muhammad (pbuh). Their recognition and support would have been a natural fulfilment of their earlier commitment to uphold and propagate divine guidance.

Commenting on Qur’ān 3:82, Ghāmidi writes:

The word “messenger” is mentioned in the general sense; however, it is evident that it refers specifically to Muhammad (pbuh), who was sent in confirmation of the religion which was previously given to the Jews and the Christians. In the words of Imām Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī, it was their misfortune that they rejected the very person who was sent to corroborate their religion and whose testimonies of advent they had borne for ages.[64]

Similarly, Qur’ān 7:156-157 explicitly mentions Muhammad as a prophet whose arrival was foretold in the Torah and the Gospel, describing him as one who guides humanity from darkness into light, removes oppressive burdens, and brings spiritual liberation. Concerning the burdens and the shackles that were to be removed by the Gentile prophet, Ghāmidi writes:

This is a reference to the self-imposed restrictions which the jurists of the Jews had adopted as a result of their own hair-splitting and of the exaggerated bouts of piety of their monks and mystics. It also refers to the restrictions which were imposed on them by the Almighty because of their rebelliousness.[65]

Further deepening the significance of Muhammad (pbuh) as the embodiment of God's covenant, Qur’ān 5:7-8 and 57:7-9 subtly refer to the historical covenant made with the Israelites, employing the powerful phrase "We have heard and we are obedient" (سَمِعْنَا وَأَطَعْنَا). This language deliberately invokes the covenantal pledge historically associated with Israel (cf. Qur’ān 2:93).[66] Through Muhammad (pbuh), this covenantal tradition was revived and universalised, reiterating humanity's responsibility to uphold divine justice and righteousness. In Qur’ān 5:7-8,[67] believers are reminded explicitly of their covenantal commitment and the ethical imperative to uphold justice irrespective of personal biases or animosities, reinforcing the Servant's prophetic role described in Isaiah 42:6 as embodying and renewing the divine covenant. Similarly, the Qur’ān reiterates[68] that Muhammad (pbuh) was sent explicitly as a covenant-renewer—inviting people to reaffirm their faith, obey God’s messenger, and be led out of darkness into spiritual illumination. Thus, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) not only fulfilled the promises inherent in previous covenants but also established a renewed universal covenant based upon justice, mercy, and divine illumination, embodying the role foreseen by Isaiah with remarkable precision.

Significantly, the Hebrew Bible itself anticipated the establishment of a new, everlasting covenant that would both fulfil and transcend previous covenants, which Israel struggled to uphold consistently. Jeremiah explicitly prophesied about a "new covenant" (Jer. 31:31–34), emphasising an inward spiritual renewal that would empower genuine adherence to divine law, moving beyond mere external observance. Ezekiel similarly prophesied a covenant characterised by spiritual renewal, wherein humanity would receive a new heart and spirit, enabling authentic obedience to God's statutes (Ezek. 36:24–27). Isaiah, particularly in alignment with his prophetic vision articulated in chapter 42, highlights an everlasting covenant intended to universally extend divine mercy, positioning the Servant explicitly as its mediator and instructor of a renewed divine law (Isa. 55:3–5; 49:6–8).

The Prophet Muhammad’s life, teachings, and mission, as explicitly outlined in the Qur’ān, embody the realisation of this anticipated covenant. This fulfilment notably aligns with Isaiah’s description in 42:4, where the Servant is portrayed as bringing forth a definitive law or divine instruction (tôrātô) eagerly awaited by distant nations ("isles"). Muhammad’s prophetic role mirrors that of the Mosaic archetype, delivering not merely judgement (mišpāṭ) but also comprehensive instruction, or torah, manifesting both judicial authority and moral teaching. The Qur’ān corroborates this prophetic vision, describing Islam’s universal acceptance within Muhammad’s lifetime, marking the fulfilment of Isaiah’s expectation of distant peoples longing for divine guidance and law (Qur’ān 110:1–3). Thus, the Prophet Muhammad’s covenantal role provided profound moral, spiritual, and social liberation, fully aligning with the Hebrew Bible’s eschatological hope for transformative and universal renewal.

Further, the prophetic role of Muhammad (pbuh) involved not only embodying and renewing the divine covenant but also explicitly instituting a new covenantal community—the Muslim Ummah. The Qur’ān presents this community as divinely appointed to bear witness to the truth before all humanity. This new community, designated as the "intermediate community" (ummatan wasaṭan) in Qur’ān 2:142-143, was established through the restoration of the original Abrahamic qiblah,[69] the Sacred Mosque (Masjid al-Ḥarām) in Makkah. This reorientation from Jerusalem's Bayt al-Maqdis to Makkah's ancient House symbolically marked the transfer of covenantal responsibilities from the Israelites to the Ishmaelites, recentring the community on the pure Abrahamic monotheism. According to Ghāmidi, the expression "intermediate community" places Muslims between God and His Messenger on one side and all nations of the world on the other, charged with a profound responsibility: to bear witness (shahāda) through both proclamation and the lived experience of divine justice on earth.

This responsibility, as emphasised by Qur’ān 22:77-78, explicitly defines Muslims as heirs to Abraham’s legacy, highlighting their designation as "Muslim," a term rooted in Abraham’s own prayer (Qur’ān 2:128) and remarkably brought up in Isaiah 42:19.[70] Ghāmidi clarifies that the selection of the Muslims parallels the earlier divine choice of Israel, yet distinctly revives and universalises Abraham’s original faith. Muslims thus constitute a renewed Abrahamic covenantal community, tasked not merely with preaching but with manifesting divine truth through their collective existence, righteous conduct, and social justice. Through this community, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) serves as a covenantal mediator whose followers embody a living testament to the prophetic truth, fulfilling Isaiah’s vision of a universally illuminating servant.

Resonating with Isaiah’s profound imagery of the Servant as a "light of the Gentiles”, Muhammad (pbuh) is explicitly referred to as a "shining lamp" (سِرَاجًا مُنِيرًا)[71] in the Qur’ān. Unlike Muhammad’s mišpāṭ (judgement), which was confined to his immediate addressees,[72] his role as a “light of the Gentiles” was not confined solely to the Arabs but was universally expansive, calling people across diverse nations— Jews and Gentiles— out of moral and spiritual darkness into the clarity and guidance of divine revelation.[73] The Qur’ān reiterates this theme consistently,[74] and Muhammad (pbuh) is commissioned to lead people from darkness into divine illumination by God's command. In the context of Isaiah 42’s trial scene, abandoning the false gods and acknowledging the Omniscient and Omnipotent God signifies a transition from darkness to light, an idea echoed in the Qur’ān as well (cf. Qur’ān 2:257).

This imagery of light and guidance is further enriched by Qur’ān 5:15-16,[75] which presents Muhammad (pbuh) as the Messenger revealing what the Jews and the Christians concealed, explicitly calling this revelation a divine "light" (نُور). Thus, he serves as both the living embodiment of God's covenantal engagement and a universal beacon of divine guidance.

Moreover, Islamic teachings affirm the economic dimension of imprisonment and oppression identified by scholars such as Walter Brueggemann. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) particularly emphasised the abolition of usury, reinforcing debt relief and compassionate lending practices, declaring in his farewell sermon.[76] This strong stance against economic exploitation aligns his prophetic mission with Isaiah’s depiction of liberation from oppression and the restoration of economic justice.

The Qur’ān and other historical texts emphasise the Prophet Muhammad’s role as liberator from spiritual and moral captivity, corresponding directly to Isaiah's vision of the Servant who opens blind eyes and frees prisoners from darkness. This practical, transformative aspect is vividly encapsulated in the Hadith report[77] describing Muhammad’s prophetic task: "with which will be opened blind eyes and deaf ears and enveloped hearts."

The poetry of Abdullāh ibn Rawāha, a companion of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), beautifully captures these themes:[78]

The Messenger who recites The Book

who at night his bed forsook

awake to invoke the Lord

when the heathens were having their nod

we were lost and without sight

he gave us guidance and light

our hearts are certain

what he says ’ll happen.[79]

This poetic testimony underscores the Prophet’s role as the guiding light, lifting people from spiritual blindness and moral darkness into clarity, certainty, and enlightenment.

Thus, the prophetic imagery in Isaiah 42:6-7 aligns compellingly with the Qur’ānic and Hadith descriptions of Muhammad (pbuh). His life and teachings exemplify the prophetic figure who embodies the divine covenant, serves as a universal beacon of divine truth, and practically transforms human conditions by liberating hearts and minds from spiritual captivity. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) indeed emerges as the "shining lamp," illuminating the path towards divine truth and universal spiritual liberation.

God’s Exclusive Glory: Disavowal of Idolatry

Verses 8-9 of Isaiah 42 serve as the climactic conclusion to the discourse initiated in verse 5, reinforcing God's exclusive claim to divine sovereignty and authority. Here, God declares with absolute clarity, “I am the Lord; that is my name; my glory I give to no other, nor my praise to carved idols.” This unequivocal proclamation emphasises pure monotheism, firmly establishing God's identity against the backdrop of pervasive idolatry. The Almighty underscores His unique capacity to foretell future events as irrefutable evidence of His divine reality—an ability inherently beyond lifeless idols, which are mere products of human craftsmanship.

The rhetorical force in these verses hinges upon the certainty of fulfilment regarding past prophecies, setting a strong foundation for trust in the new revelations concerning the forthcoming Servant. As these former prophecies were fulfilled, the prediction of a future Servant—through whom divine judgement would be established—also stands assured. Central to the Servant’s mission is confronting idol worship and reinstating pure monotheistic devotion. Thus, the Servant emerges as a herald of absolute monotheism, decisively positioned against polytheistic practices. This exclusive claim to glory reaffirms the overarching courtroom motif of Deutero-Isaiah, wherein God alone stands vindicated as the true sovereign against false gods.

The Prophet Muhammad’s mission uniquely aligns with this description, for it revolved around declaring the absolute oneness of God and eliminating idol worship. A striking parallel to this mission is vividly illustrated in a detailed hadith narrative recounting the experience of ‘Amr bin ‘Abasa’s transition to Islam.[80]

The Prophet’s clearly articulated purpose, "to break the idols and to proclaim the oneness of God," provides a direct, unmistakable fulfilment of Isaiah’s prophecy. Muhammad (pbuh) explicitly understood his task from the very inception of his prophetic mission, foreseeing eventual victory and the establishment of pure monotheism.

This call to monotheism was further substantiated by historical events, notably the Prophet’s eventual victory over idolatry in Arabia. The certainty expressed in Isaiah’s prophecy, that God declares new things beforehand to affirm His singular divine authority, is mirrored precisely in Muhammad’s prophetic confidence and eventual triumph over idolatry. This narrative from ‘Amr bin ‘Abasa vividly captures the essence of his divinely ordained role and the inevitable fulfilment of the prophetic vision set forth in Isaiah 42:8-9.

Thus, Isaiah’s assertion of God’s unique glory and the explicit rejection of idolatry finds profound resonance in the Prophet Muhammad’s mission, firmly establishing him as the prophetic Servant envisioned in Isaiah, whose primary message and ultimate achievement were the restoration and universal proclamation of pure monotheism.

Chapter Summary

This chapter analyses Isaiah 42:5-9, emphasising God's sovereignty, creative power, and His direct commissioning of the Servant, highlighting profound theological themes and their fulfilment in the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) life and mission.

Initially, the passage underscores God's absolute authority as the creator and sustainer of life, affirming His exclusive divinity against idols. This declaration establishes the divine capability and guarantee of support for the Servant's mission.

Central to the analysis is the term "בְּצֶדֶק" (bĕṣeḏeq), interpreted not merely as righteousness but as divine justice embodying eschatological truth and judgement. Drawing parallels with the Qur'ānic concepts of "qisṭ" and "ḥaqq," the Servant’s mission is framed as a judicial and restorative role, aligned with God's ultimate moral and ontological correctness.

Further exploring verses 6-7, the Servant's divine empowerment and protection are discussed, mirroring Qur’ānic descriptions of divine support and safeguarding (nusrah and ‘iṣmah) evident in the Prophet Muhammad's life, particularly during pivotal historical events like the Battle of Badr and migration to Madīnah.

The Servant's role as a "covenant" and "light" extends his mission beyond Israel to universal spiritual renewal. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is specifically highlighted as fulfilling this prophecy through the establishment of a universal Abrahamic covenant community (Ummah) and guiding humanity from spiritual darkness to divine illumination, as affirmed by multiple Qur’ānic verses.

Verse 7 expands this transformative role into practical dimensions—liberating humanity from spiritual blindness, captivity, and oppression. The Prophet Muhammad’s prophetic mission actively pursued spiritual, moral, and even socio-economic liberation, notably through abolishing usury and promoting justice.

Finally, verses 8-9 reinforce monotheism and divine exclusivity, with a strong emphasis on God’s foreknowledge and sovereignty. The Prophet Muhammad's explicit mission to abolish idolatry and reaffirm monotheism conclusively demonstrates him as fulfilling Isaiah’s prophetic vision, establishing him firmly as the Servant prophesied by Isaiah.

__________

Behold, the former things

have come to pass,

and new things I now declare;

before they spring forth

I tell you of them.

[Isaiah 42:9]

4.3.         Isaiah 42:10-12

​ 10​ ​שִׁירוּ לַֽיהוָה שִׁיר חָדָשׁ תְּהִלָּתֹו מִקְצֵה הָאָרֶץ יֹורְדֵי הַיָּם וּמְלֹאֹו אִיִּים וְיֹשְׁבֵיהֶֽם׃ ​ 11​ ​יִשְׂאוּ מִדְבָּר וְעָרָיו חֲצֵרִים תֵּשֵׁב קֵדָר יָרֹנּוּ יֹשְׁבֵי סֶלַע מֵרֹאשׁ הָרִים יִצְוָֽחוּ׃ ​ 12​ ​יָשִׂימוּ לַֽיהוָה כָּבֹוד וּתְהִלָּתֹו בָּאִיִּים יַגִּֽידוּ׃

Translation (The King James Version)

Sing unto the LORD a new song, and his praise from the end of the earth, ye that go down to the sea, and all that is therein; the isles, and the inhabitants thereof. Let the wilderness and the cities thereof lift up their voice, the villages that Kedar doth inhabit: let the inhabitants of the rock sing, let them shout from the top of the mountains. Let them give glory unto the LORD, and declare his praise in the islands.

Geography of the Servant’s Appearance

In Isaiah 42:10-11, the prophetic discourse transitions from outlining the Servant’s character and mission to identifying and addressing the specific geographical and ethnic communities destined to witness his appearance. Those who will directly benefit from his prophetic ministry are called upon to recognise this divine favour and gratefully extol the praises of God. Isaiah directs its attention particularly towards a people who were previously trapped in spiritual blindness and error, highlighting their redemption through divine intervention. The Qur’ān resonates profoundly with this theme when it states:

In reality, God has been very gracious to the believers in sending them a Messenger from amongst themselves who recites out His revelations before them and purifies them, and for this instructs them in the law and in the wisdom. And there is no doubt that before this they were in open error. (Qur’ān 3:164)

In the immediate context of the prophecy, the call to “sing to the Lord a new song” (Isa. 42:10) can only be understood as praise for the mighty work God is about to accomplish. Notably, the text enjoins gentile communities— “the coastlands and their inhabitants,” “the desert and its towns,” and “the villages of Kedar”—to raise this new song. As John Goldingay and David Payne note, such references evoke something “different, unexpected, wonderful,” for it is neither exclusively Israel nor her descendants who are summoned; the gentile Kedarites are included. This underscores a broader outreach that looks well beyond Israel alone.

Isaiah’s prophetic spotlight is thus cast on a region historically associated with Abraham (pbuh) and his progeny. The subsequent verses name specific locales and tribes—clues that greatly illuminate the Servant’s geographical base.

The Ends of the Earth

Isaiah 42:10 exhorts the “ends of the earth” to sing God’s praise. The phrase "end(s) of the earth" (qṣê hāʾāreṣ)[81] in Isaiah 42:10 has frequently been interpreted universally. However, contextual evidence (including the Servant’s task of mišpāṭ) suggests a more localised geographical focus related explicitly to the territories promised to Abraham (pbuh) and his descendants. Isaiah himself clarifies this meaning by using the same phrase "end(s) of the earth" in Isaiah 41:9 to refer explicitly to Abraham’s lineage in relation to the land around the Euphrates.^[82] This territorial promise is explicitly documented in the biblical covenant with Abraham (pbuh).^[83]

The Qur’ān aligns with this geographic depiction by describing the dominion granted to the Israelites during the era of Solomon (pbuh):

وَأَوْرَثْنَا ٱلْقَوْمَ ٱلَّذِينَ كَانُوا۟ يُسْتَضْعَفُونَ مَشَـٰرِقَ ٱلْأَرْضِ وَمَغَـٰرِبَهَا ٱلَّتِى بَـٰرَكْنَا فِيهَا ۖ وَتَمَّتْ كَلِمَتُ رَبِّكَ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ عَلَىٰ بَنِىٓ إِسْرَٰٓءِيلَ بِمَا صَبَرُوا۟ ۖ وَدَمَّرْنَا مَا كَانَ يَصْنَعُ فِرْعَوْنُ وَقَوْمُهُۥ وَمَا كَانُوا۟ يَعْرِشُونَ

We made the oppressed people inheritors of the eastern and western parts of the land which We had blessed” (Qur’ān 7:137, emphasis added).

The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) similarly used this terminology— Mashāriqa al-arḍ wa-magāribahā— prophetically envisioning the expanse of the territory his immediate followers would dominate:

عن ثوبان ، قال : قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم : " إن الله زوى لي الأرض، فرأيت مشارقها ومغاربها ، وإن أمتي سيبلغ ملكها ما زوي لي منها

It was narrated that Thawbân said: The Messenger of Allah said: "Allah drew the ends of the earth together for me to see, and I saw its eastern and western lands, and I saw that the dominion of my Ummah will reach as far as that which was drawn together for me to see. And I have been given two treasures, the red and the white…”^[84]

Further, Biblical texts describe detailed geographic features—such as seas, coastlands, and mountains—that mark the territory promised to Abraham's descendants. Deuteronomy outlines this clearly:

Turn you, and take your journey, and go to the mount of the Amorites, and unto all the places nigh thereunto, in the plain, in the hills, and in the vale, and in the south, and by the sea side, to the land of the Canaanites, and unto Lebanon, unto the great river, the river Euphrates. (Deut. 1:7)

Deuteronomy reiterates this promise, explicitly stating:

Every place whereon the soles of your feet shall tread shall be yours: from the wilderness and Lebanon, from the river, the river Euphrates, even unto the uttermost sea shall your coast be. (11:24)

Historically, this expansive region astonishingly came under Muslim control within thirty years of the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) proclamation of his prophetic mission.[85] This rapid expansion occurred despite overwhelming odds and military inferiority compared to the dominant Byzantine and Persian empires of the time. This remarkable historical occurrence aligns closely with what was promised to the Israelites in Deuteronomy:

For if ye shall diligently keep all these commandments which I command you, to do them, to love the LORD your God, to walk in all his ways, and to cleave unto him; Then will the LORD drive out all these nations from before you, and ye shall possess greater nations and mightier than yourselves.”[86] (11:22-23)

Considering these texts, it appears that "the ends of the earth" in Isaiah 42:10 refers primarily to these well-defined boundaries associated with Abraham's lineage and historically realised through the emergence and expansion of the early Muslim community.

The Villages of Kedar

Within this prophetic delineation of territory, Isaiah 42:11 specifically identifies two crucial locations: "Kedar" and "Sela." These place names provide key geographical clues to the identity and location of the Servant’s ministry.

Biblically, Kedar is explicitly identified as a son of Ishmael (pbuh):

These are the names of the sons of Ishmael, named in the order of their birth: Nebaioth, the firstborn of Ishmael; and Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah. (Gen. 25:13-14)

According to Genesis 25:18, Ishmael’s sons settled “from Havilah to Shur,” thereby delineating the scope of Ishmaelite territory as stretching between two landmark regions. The identification of Havilah, listed in Genesis as part of the region inhabited by the descendants of Ishmael, is widely associated with the resource-rich zones of southern Arabia. Archaeological, textual, and historical evidence strongly suggests that Havilah refers to the southeastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula, particularly areas like Ḥaulan in modern-day Yemen. Ancient sources, such as Pliny and Eratosthenes, and early Arab geographers link this region to the Chaulotaioi and to gold and incense trade routes, reinforcing the conclusion that Havilah was not a singular locality but a term denoting a culturally and economically significant zone along the incense trade network.[87] Although some scholars debate the precise boundaries of Havilah—Kalisch, for instance, posited that Havilah might extend as far as the Arabian Gulf—there is general consensus that this place belongs within the southernmost reaches of Arabia.

On the other side of this Ishmaelite corridor is Shur. The Wilderness of Shur (Heb. midbār šūr) refers to a desert region in the northern Sinai Peninsula, lying between Egypt and the southern borders of Canaan, and often associated with the area between the Red Sea and the Wilderness of Etham. Biblically, Shur is described as a place Israel entered after crossing the Red Sea (Exod. 15:22). While some scholars locate Shur east of the Red Sea (near the Gulf of Suez), others suggest it lies closer to the Mediterranean, with one tradition identifying it as the area near the Egyptian military frontier known as the “Wall of the Ruler”. Although the precise boundaries of Shur remain debated, most references agree that it marked a significant liminal zone between Egypt and the southern Levant, often associated with wilderness, migration, and divine encounters.[88]

Within this framework of “Havilah to Shur,” most authorities place Kedar in the Ḥijāz. About Kedar, Smith’s Bible Dictionary writes:

The tribe seems to have been one of the most conspicuous of all the Ishmaelite tribes, and hence the rabbins call the Arabians universally by this name.^[89]

This usage (where Arabs are sometimes generically called “Kedar”) underscores how crucial this tribe became among the Ishmaelites. Hence, when Isaiah 42:11 proclaims, “Let the wilderness and its cities lift up their voice, the villages that Kedar inhabits,” it appears to reference precisely the environment of western Arabia—an area known to combine rocky deserts, mountainous outcrops, and historically significant cities such as Makkah and Madīnah.

Reverend Charles Forster approves this conclusion in his two-volume work, The Historical Geography of Arabia. He writes:

“The presumption thus afforded by Isaiah, that the seats of Kedar should be sought in this last quarter, receives material confirmation from another place of the same prophet, his description, namely, of the land of Kedar; which every reader conversant with Arabian geography will recognise as a most accurate delineation of the district of Hedjaz, including its famous cities of Mekka and Medina. “Let the wilderness, and the cities thereof, lift up their voice; the villages that Kedar doth inhabit. Let the inhabitants of the rock sing; let them shout from the top of the mountains: Let them give glory unto the Lord; and declare his praise in the islands” The agreement of this graphical description with the localities of the Hedjaz is almost too obvious for remark. For, while the voice of Kedar from his rocks and mountains, reaching to the neighbouring islands, plainly denotes his situation along the sea-coast, … a seacoast wilderness or desert, comprising famous cities, together with rocky mountains interspersed with villages, presents a picture far too uniquely characteristic, to be transferred to any district of the Arabian peninsula, from that quarter, the Hedjaz, to which alone, and at every point, it applies.”[90]

He further writes:

“Now it was the immemorial tradition of the Arabs themselves that Kedar and his posterity originally settled in Hedjaz. From this patriarch, the tribe of Koreish in particular, the sovereigns of Mekka and guardians of the Caaba, always boasted their descent. And Mahomet himself, in the Koran, upheld his claims to the princely and priestly honours of his race on this very ground, as an Ishmaelite of the stock of Kedar. A national tradition like this rises into historical authority, when sustained, on the one hand, by those scriptural notices, which place Kedar in this very quarter of the peninsula, and, on the other hand, by the unquestioned and unquestionable fact of the existence of the Cedrei, Dame, Kedranitae, or Kadraitae, as a people of the Hedjaz, in the ages of Uranius, Ptolemy, and the elder Pliny.”[91]

Such traditional genealogies, confirmed in Islamic sources and supported by classical Greco-Roman geographers, indicate that references to Kedar effectively serve as stand-ins for central and northwestern Arabia. Archaeological and epigraphic surveys—such as those compiled by scholars researching Arabian inscriptions—reinforce the notion of significant Ishmaelite or Kedarite groups dwelling in the Ḥijāz. Indeed, the corridor between Havilah (in the south) and Shur (in the northwest) would naturally encompass all key settlements along Arabia’s western flank.

Consequently, the “villages of Kedar” specified in Isaiah 42:11 align with the historical domain of Makkah, Madīnah, and their surroundings. These areas were (and remain) vital centres in the Islamic tradition, confirming the scriptural and historical evidence that the most prominent Ishmaelite tribes, including Kedar, were deeply rooted in that region. Rather than presenting any contradiction, the biblical and historical records converge: Havilah in southern Arabia, Shur near Egypt, and Kedar in the Ḥijāz create a coherent geographical tapestry indicating that the prophecy in Isaiah 42 finds its most tangible fulfilment in the western half of the Arabian Peninsula.

The Inhabitants of Sela

The term "Sela," translated as ‘rock’ in the King James Version, has historically presented interpretive challenges, leading many scholars to link it ambiguously with Petra, an ancient city of Edom. However, this interpretation is contested by a significant number of scholars.

In discussing Isaiah 42:10–11, Taha Soomro[92] addresses the mention of “Sela,” traditionally mapped to Petra in Edom but now widely disputed by modern scholars due to lack of earlier habitation evidence. According to Soomro, the place “Selaʿ” has traditionally been identified as the Nabataean city of Petra in Jordan. In his view, this identification cannot be correct, as there is no evidence of any inhabitants there until the 4th century BCE, while the second Isaiah was written in the 6th century BCE. He draws attention to the biblical and historical mention of Taymāʾ along with Kedar (cf. Isa. 21:13-17), highlighting that this ancient oasis lies roughly 350 kilometres north of Madīnah (Yathrib). He further observes that by the mid-sixth century BCE, King Nabonidus of Babylon had launched a protracted campaign in this very region, even spending an entire decade near Yathrib. Soomro argues that, in light of these known historical movements, the exiled Israelite audience of Second Isaiah would likely have heard reports of Nabonidus' progress and the strategic significance of Arabia’s western flank. Consequently, he concludes that references to “Sela” in Isaiah 42 plausibly point to an Arabian location, such as the mountain of Salaʿ in Madīnah, rather than solely to Petra or an Edomite site. References to “Sela” appear in multiple biblical texts (Judg. 1:36; Isa. 16:1), signifying different places. Without more specificity, we cannot be certain which Selaʿ Isaiah intended, but the mention of Kedar strongly suggests an Arabian Sela.

Islamic sources provide more precise geographical clarity by identifying "Sala’" (Arabic: سلع) explicitly as a prominent mountain within Madīnah. Authentic Hadith accounts mention incidents on or near this mountain, including the famously moving story of Kaʿb bin Mālik receiving the good news of the acceptance of his repentance while someone shouted down from Mount Salaʿ.[93] Accounts of the Battle of Ahzab (Khandaq) also situate Salaʿ as a major landmark in Madīnah.[94]

The textual and historical evidence places Isaiah’s geographical references—particularly "Kedar" and "Sela"—firmly in the northern Arabian Peninsula. These explicit references geographically pinpoint the region around Makkah and Madīnah as the prophesied setting of the Servant’s appearance. Notably, this region aligns historically and prophetically with the advent of Islam and the ministry of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).

Historical accounts validate this identification remarkably. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), initially facing severe persecution in Makkah, migrated to Madīnah, receiving a joyous reception as the inhabitants welcomed him with songs[95] and glorified God. This fulfilled Isaiah’s prophetic call for rejoicing in these settlements, thus historically manifesting the prophecy of Isaiah 42:10-11.

In summary, Isaiah’s precise geographical references to "Kedar" and "Sela," corroborated by both Biblical and Islamic scholarly traditions, explicitly identify the region of al-Ḥijāz, particularly Makkah and Madīnah, as the Servant’s prophetic territory. This geographical and historical analysis compellingly points to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as the Servant foretold by Isaiah, whose ministry decisively restored monotheism, transforming the spiritual landscape of the region in accordance with divine prophecy.

Shouting God’s Praises

In this section of Isaiah, the prophet calls upon the people in the delineated territory to extol God. This exhortation to worship is set against the backdrop of Isaiah’s earlier descriptions of the Servant of the Lord (Isa. 42:1–9). The motif of “newness” (verse 10: “a new song”) emphasises that God is about to do a fresh work in history, one demanding a fresh expression of praise. The Hebrew term תְּהִלָּה (tehillāh), in vv. 10 and 12, serves as the central keyword that summons the people of the delineated territory to glorify God and celebrate His praise. This word has attracted particular interest among Bible scholars. In his lectures delivered at the University of Oxford as part of the Bampton Lecture series, Thomas Kelly Cheyne (d. 1915), drawing on the more detailed work of other scholars, connects tehillāh to the Arabic term تَهْلِيل (tahlīl), meaning “the shouting of a sacred formula.” He writes:

“Lagarde connects Heb. hallel with Arab. ahalla ‘to call, cry out,’ which is accepted by Wellhausen (Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, iii. 107). It is therefore properly the obligatory shouting of the worshipper on a visit to the sanctuary; the Arabic taḥlīl

consists merely in calling out labbaika, ‘at thy service, O Lord!’ So at least Wellhausen; the taḥlīl

is usually said, however, to mean the ejaculation, lā ilāha illā ’llāh, ‘there is no deity but God,’ and to resemble the talbiyah (see p. 214). The repetition of labbaika must be a degenerate substitute for a fuller formula. At any rate, the shouting of the Arabs will help us to realize ‘the humble origin of the Hebrew t’hillah,’ and the ‘rough’ character of the original ‘singing’ in the temple.”[96]

This philological link between tehillāh and tahlīl not only enriches our understanding of the linguistic texture of biblical worship but also offers a compelling intercultural perspective on how communities across Semitic traditions have expressed devotion through vocal proclamation. The act of "shouting praise" or "calling out" suggests a deeply communal and embodied form of worship, one that transcends quiet contemplation and instead fills public space with an audible declaration of divine majesty.

Targum Jonathan uses the words šabbaḥû, tušbaḥtēh, and yešabbaḥ (all derivatives of the Semitic root שׁ־ב־ח / š-b-ḥ) to render the notion of “praising” or “extolling” the Lord in Isaiah’s prophetic summons. This Aramaic root is cognate with the Arabic س־ب־ح / s-b-ḥ, which underpins Qurʾānic verbs like sabbaḥa (“he glorified”) and nouns like tasbīḥ (“glorification”).[97] In doing so, the Targum underscores the communal, almost urgent character of worship—much like the “shouting” or “crying out” Cheyne and other scholars have noted in the Hebrew tehillāh (תְּהִלָּה).

Just as Hebrew tehillāh in Isaiah 42:10 and 12 highlights a distinct mode of praising God (one commensurate with the “new work” God is accomplishing), these Aramaic equivalents in Targum Jonathan evoke the same imperative to declare God’s majesty. They tie into a wider Semitic tradition in which praise is not merely spoken but proclaimed, called out, or “shouted.” This sense of corporate worship and vocal exaltation resonates with both the Hebrew usage of tehillāh and the Arabic forms of tasbīḥ, illustrating how the biblical Targum tradition and Qurʾānic diction share a deep linguistic and devotional heritage in expressing the believer’s response to divine revelation.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of Isaiah 42:10-12, highlighting specific geographical and historical references pointing to the Arabian Peninsula, particularly the regions around Makkah and Madīnah, as the location prophesied for the Servant's appearance.

It begins by interpreting the call for a "new song" as a joyful response to God's imminent action, specifically targeting gentile communities previously in spiritual darkness. The chapter emphasises the precise geographical clues mentioned—"the ends of the earth," "the villages of Kedar," and "the inhabitants of Sela"—clearly linking them to the lands historically inhabited by the descendants of Ishmael, notably the Ḥijāz region.

The analysis extensively explores historical and scriptural evidence supporting these identifications, emphasising the prophetic fulfilment seen through the rapid expansion of early Islamic dominion following the Prophet Muhammad's (pbuh) mission. The chapter also explores linguistic parallels between Hebrew terms for praise and their Arabic equivalents, demonstrating a rich intercultural devotional heritage.

Ultimately, this chapter argues that the geographical references in Isaiah 42:10-12 align with the historical emergence and mission of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), fulfilling the prophetic vision outlined in Isaiah.

__________

Let the wilderness and the cities

thereof lift up their voice,

the villages that Kedar doth inhabit:

let the inhabitants of the rock sing,

let them shout from the top of the mountains.

[Isaiah 42:11]

4.4.         Isaiah 42:13-17

13​ ​יְהוָה כַּגִּבֹּור יֵצֵא כְּאִישׁ מִלְחָמֹות יָעִיר קִנְאָה יָרִיעַ אַף־יַצְרִיחַ עַל־אֹיְבָיו יִתְגַּבָּֽר׃ ​ 14​ ​הֶחֱשֵׁיתִי מֵֽעֹולָם אַחֲרִישׁ אֶתְאַפָּק כַּיֹּולֵדָה אֶפְעֶה אֶשֹּׁם וְאֶשְׁאַף יָֽחַד׃ ​ 15​ ​אַחֲרִיב הָרִים וּגְבָעֹות וְכָל־עֶשְׂבָּם אֹובִישׁ וְשַׂמְתִּי נְהָרֹות לָֽאִיִּים וַאֲגַמִּים אֹובִֽישׁ׃ ​ 16​ ​וְהֹולַכְתִּי עִוְרִים בְּדֶרֶךְ לֹא יָדָעוּ בִּנְתִיבֹות לֹֽא־יָדְעוּ אַדְרִיכֵם אָשִׂים מַחְשָׁךְ לִפְנֵיהֶם לָאֹור וּמַֽעֲקַשִּׁים לְמִישֹׁור אֵלֶּה הַדְּבָרִים עֲשִׂיתִם וְלֹא עֲזַבְתִּֽים׃ ​ 17​ ​נָסֹגוּ אָחֹור יֵבֹשׁוּ בֹשֶׁת הַבֹּטְחִים בַּפָּסֶל הָאֹמְרִים לְמַסֵּכָה אַתֶּם אֱלֹהֵֽינוּ׃

Translation (The King James Version)

The LORD shall go forth as a mighty man, he shall stir up jealousy like a man of war: he shall cry, yea, roar; he shall prevail against his enemies. I have long time holden my peace; I have been still, and refrained myself: now will I cry like a travailing woman; I will destroy and devour at once. I will make waste mountains and hills, and dry up all their herbs; and I will make the rivers islands, and I will dry up the pools. And I will bring the blind by a way that they knew not; I will lead them in paths that they have not known: I will make darkness light before them, and crooked things straight. These things will I do unto them, and not forsake them. They shall be turned back, they shall be greatly ashamed, that trust in graven images, that say to the molten images, Ye are our gods.

The Warrior and the Deliverer

In this section of Isaiah 42, the Servant (previously introduced in vv. 1–9) is portrayed as an instrument of divine judgement. Verse 13 begins: “The LORD shall go forth as a mighty man, he shall stir up jealousy like a man of war (ʾîš milḥāmōṯ).” Scholars widely recognise that this “divine warrior” motif is a common element in the Hebrew Bible (cf. Exod. 15:3; Isa. 59:16–20), depicting God as a conqueror who executes judgement. The anthropomorphic portrayal of God in this section (as elsewhere in the Bible)[98] is obviously figurative,[99] implying that the Servant, commissioned by God, carries out God’s decisive actions in history. A contextually grounded reading of this passage suggests that fulfilling the prophecy will involve elements of warfare.

Considering this, the opening proclamation should be viewed figuratively. The statement about God rousing Himself “like a warrior” seems to signify the initiation of offensive campaigns by the Lord’s Servant and not campaigns of mere self-defence. These battles come only after a protracted invitation for repentance (Isa. 42:1–4). Such a pattern matches the historical mission of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)—for thirteen years in Makkah, he called people to abandon idolatry and submit to God, enduring severe persecution without permission to retaliate.

Only when circumstances demanded it—and after patient endurance—did the Muslims undertake armed campaigns, obeying God’s directives. It is possible to compare this sequence to God’s prolonged patience before judgement, invoking the language of verse 14: “For a long time I have held my peace; I have kept still and restrained myself.”

As the text transitions, God’s speech intensifies: “Now I will cry out like a woman in labour; I will gasp and pant.” According to Albert Barnes, the Hebrew word for “pant” (nāsham) connotes heavy breathing or panting indicative of anger or a resolve to execute vengeance. Much like other anthropomorphic expressions (e.g., Isa. 1:24; 59:17), this language should not be read too literally but rather as a vivid metaphor for God’s righteous indignation.[100] The essential point: after a period of restraint, God will unleash His decisive action through the Servant.

Applied to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), this aligns with the idea that God “manifested His judgement” only after an extended period of forbearance. The thirteen-year Makkan phase of preaching saw Muslims oppressed and persecuted to the limit, culminating in their migration (Hijrah) to Madīnah. Subsequently, the command to resist and, if necessary, fight against those bent on eradicating their faith was given.[101] Many exegetes see this phase as “the time” when God’s indignation against entrenched idolatry was finally put into action.

Laying Waste Mountains and Hills

Isaiah 42:15 speaks of God’s action in terms of destroying “mountains and hills” and drying up “all their vegetation.” According to Barnes, this figurative language likely targets pagan religious structures—temples, altars, and rituals—destined to be abolished by God’s intervention.[102]

Historically, the downfall of polytheism in Arabia and around it parallels this portrayal: The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his community dismantled idol worship in Makkah and throughout the peninsula (Qur’ān 17:81). When Makkah was conquered in 8 A.H. (629 C.E.), the idols in the Kaaba were knocked down in a symbolic overthrow of paganism. This resonates closely with the depiction of God’s Servant “drying up vegetation” and levelling the old pagan order.

Jewish exegete Rabbi David Kimhi offers a different metaphorical meaning of these expressions.[103] Applying his interpretation to the rise of Islam, one observes remarkable historical resonance. In this reading, the verse is not merely about topographical change but about radical shifts in political power and societal structures. Within a single generation, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his companions brought an unprecedented upheaval in the political order of their time. Paganism was eliminated in the Arabian Peninsula; corrupt tribal hierarchies gave way to an ethically grounded polity rooted in divine law. Successive caliphs oversaw the downfall of long-entrenched empires, including the Sasanian dynasty and large parts of the Byzantine Empire. As Radak’s metaphor suggests, the “mountains” (kings and ruling powers)[104] were indeed “laid waste,” and the “vegetation” (nations) transformed before the advance of a new moral vision.

Leading the Blind through Unfamiliar Paths

Verse 16 offers a message of hope: “And I will bring the blind by a way that they knew not; I will lead them in paths that they have not known…” Considering that God is carrying out these actions through His Servant—already introduced as “a light for the Gentiles,” whose primary task is described as “judgement to the Gentiles”—the “blind” in this passage should be identified primarily with the Gentiles, who had been “without prophetic guidance” for a considerable time, and secondarily with the blind Israelites. Benson’s Commentary also echoes this observation, noting that the prophet envisages a spiritual awakening for those previously steeped in ignorance. That said, the text’s broader literary context—particularly Isaiah 42:18–20—suggests that Israel too is implicated in this blindness, albeit in a qualitatively different way. While Gentile blindness arises from the absence of divine light, Israel's blindness stems from having received the light and yet choosing not to walk in it. Theirs is a blindness marked not by ignorance, but by resistance and neglect of revealed truth. The text refers to the blind being made to walk (הלכ) “by a way that they knew not” and led “in paths that they have not known,” phrases that invite theological and hermeneutical reflection. In the context of Israel, the nation was already acquainted with a divinely ordained way,[105] namely, the Mosaic Law, the prophetic tradition, and the temple sacrificial system. Consequently, the expression “a way that they knew not” may be understood as alluding to a new mode of divine guidance or revelation distinct from, and perhaps superseding, the established Mosaic dispensation.

Reflecting upon Arabia— the setting of the Servant’s appearance— it is historically acknowledged that no divinely commissioned prophet had been raised among the Arabs after Ishmael’s (pbuh) era, a gap spanning many centuries. This notion is echoed in several Qur’ānic passages.[106] Through the Prophet Muhammad’s ministry, vast numbers emerged from darkness (paganism) into light (monotheism)— “I will guide them…” and “I do not forsake them.” The consistent Islamic teaching is that God’s promises hold for the faithful and that devotion ensures divine support (Qur’ān 47:7).

The Servant’s Decisive Confrontation with Idolaters

Finally, verse 17 underscores the downfall of those persisting in idolatry: “They shall be turned back, they shall be greatly ashamed, that trust in graven images, that say to the molten images, Ye are our gods.” This condemnation reiterates the inevitability of monotheistic triumph, a theme we see throughout the Book of Isaiah (cf. Isa. 2:18–21; 44:9–20). God’s magnificent works of judgement and redemption shall expose the emptiness of false gods and lifeless idols, unravelling the illusion that once enthralled their worshippers. Through His mighty interventions, He will shatter the deceptive grip of idolatry, leaving those who placed their trust in man-made images bewildered and ashamed. These worshippers, who once declared with unwavering devotion, “You are our gods,” now stand in disbelief as their idols prove powerless in the face of divine authority.

It dovetails with the victory of Islam in Makkah, where idols failed to defend themselves or their worshippers from the ascendancy of Islam. The pivotal moment of Makkah’s conquest is in 629 C.E., when Abū Sufyan—once a chief opponent—recognised the futility of pagan gods and embraced Islam.[107] The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) triumphantly marched into Makkah and personally removed the idols from the Kaaba, reciting the Qur’anic words, “Truth has arrived, and Falsehood has perished…” (Qur’ān 17:81). Many reliable historical sources confirm this crucial turning point.

Hence, verse 17 concludes this prophecy with a stark contrast: those who humbly accept the divine message find guidance and salvation, while the people entrenched in polytheism and idolatry meet only ruin and humiliation.

Isaiah 42:13–17 illuminates the Servant’s role in manifesting God’s righteous judgement. The language of divine militancy (“God goes forth like a warrior”) is a figurative means of describing the unstoppable progress of God’s cause. Historically and exegetically, one sees remarkable parallels in the life of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh): after prolonged patience and non-retaliation, a decisive shift came—leading to the dismantling of pagan idols and the guidance of “blind” Gentiles into the “light” of monotheism. In short, these verses emphasise not only God’s capacity to bring about justice but also His desire to guide those in spiritual darkness, vindicating the believers while humbling the persistent disbelievers.

Chapter Summary

This chapter analyses Isaiah 42:13-17, portraying the Servant as a divine warrior executing God's judgement after a prolonged period of restraint. It highlights the figurative language used to describe God’s decisive action, such as laying waste mountains and hills—symbols of idolatry and oppressive power structures.

The analysis identifies historical parallels with the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) mission, noting his initial period of peaceful preaching under severe persecution, followed by divinely sanctioned offensive warfare. The chapter further elaborates how the Prophet’s conquest of Makkah fulfilled this prophecy, marking the destruction of idols and the eradication of polytheism in the Arabian Peninsula.

Verse 16 emphasises divine guidance for those previously "blind," metaphorically representing both the Gentiles without prior revelation and the Israelites neglecting their covenantal obligations. The chapter concludes by emphasising the triumph of monotheism and the humiliation of idolaters, vividly illustrated in the historical triumph of Islam over Arabian idolatry.

__________

They shall be turned back,

they shall be greatly ashamed,

that trust in graven images,

that say to the molten images,

Ye are our gods.

[Isaiah 42:17]

______________

[1] עַבְדִּי (‘Avdi)— My Servant.

[2] “Flawless is the being who one night took His servant from the Sacred Mosque to that Distant Mosque whose surroundings We have blessed so that We can make him observe some of Our signs. Indeed, only He hears and knows all.” (Qur’ān 17:1)

سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي أَسْرَىٰ بِعَبْدِهِ لَيْلًا مِّنَ الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ إِلَى الْمَسْجِدِ الْأَقْصَى الَّذِي بَارَكْنَا حَوْلَهُ لِنُرِيَهُ مِنْ آيَاتِنَا ۚ إِنَّهُ هُوَ السَّمِيعُ الْبَصِيرُ

“Gratitude is for God alone, Who has revealed this Book to His servant and did not leave any complexity in it.” (Qur’ān 18:1)

الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ الَّذِي أَنزَلَ عَلَىٰ عَبْدِهِ الْكِتَابَ وَلَمْ يَجْعَل لَّهُ عِوَجًا

“Very exalted and benevolent is the being who has revealed this Furqān to His servant so that it can warn the people of the world.” (Qur’ān 25:1)

تَبَارَكَ الَّذِي نَزَّلَ الْفُرْقَانَ عَلَىٰ عَبْدِهِ لِيَكُونَ لِلْعَالَمِينَ نَذِيرًا

Cf. Qur’ān 2:23, 8:41, 53:10, 57:7-9.

[3] "Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a servant (‘abd). Therefore, call me the Servant of God and His Messenger."

— Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 4, 410 (ḥadīth 3445).

[4] See, for example, Qur’ān 8:62-63, which mentions divine assistance and the unification of the believers; Qur’ān 9:40, which describes in concise terms all those instances of divine help that had materialised; and Qur’ān 5:67, which affirms God’s promise of protection.

[5] Qur’ān 42:13.

[6] “… neither has your Lord abandoned you nor is He displeased with you.” (Qur’ān 93:3)

مَا وَدَّعَكَ رَبُّكَ وَمَا قَلَىٰ

This passage reassures the Prophet of God’s pleasure and promises him ultimate satisfaction.

[7] Ar. روح

[8] רוח נבואה (Ruach nevu'ah)

[9] Memra from the root Amr (Command).

[10] Bruce Chilton, The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus, and Notes (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987), xvi.

[11] “He sends down angels with the command of revelation to whomsoever He wills with the directive…” (Qur’ān 16:2)

یُنَزِّلُ ٱلۡمَلَـٰۤىِٕكَةَ بِٱلرُّوحِ مِنۡ أَمۡرِهِۦ عَلَىٰ مَن یَشَاۤءُ مِنۡ عِبَادِهِۦۤ…

Commenting on this passage, Jāved Ahmad Ghāmidī writes,

The actual words are بِالرُّوْحِ مِنْ اَمْرِهٖ. i.e., with the command of ‘rūh’. The word ‘rūh.’ here means divine revelation. It has been used in the Qur’ān in this meaning also. The reason for this is that the breath or utterance that emanates from God and becomes an angel or the corporal form of a human being or becomes a word is the same with regard to its essence.

— Jāved Ahmad Ghāmidī and Shehzād Saleem, Al-Bayān: An Annotated Qur’ān Translation, vol. 3 (Lahore: Al-Mawrid, 2023), 9, n. 3.

“He has an exalted status, is the master of the throne, places the spirit of His directive into whomever of His servants He desires…” (Qur’ān 40:15)

رَفِیۡعُ الدَّرَجٰتِ ذُو الۡعَرۡشِ ۚ یُلۡقِی الرُّوۡحَ مِنۡ اَمۡرِہٖ عَلٰی مَنۡ یَّشَآءُ مِنۡ عِبَادِہٖ

“They ask you about the rūḥ [that is being revealed to you]. Tell them, this rūḥ is a directive of my Lord, and you have been given very little knowledge of such facts.” (Qur’ān 17:85)

وَيَسْـَٔلُونَكَ عَنِ ٱلرُّوحِ ۖ قُلِ ٱلرُّوحُ مِنْ أَمْرِ رَبِّى وَمَآ أُوتِيتُم مِّنَ ٱلْعِلْمِ إِلَّا قَلِيلًۭا

[12] “To you too [O Prophet!] We have similarly sent the rūḥ of Our directive…” (Qur’ān 42:52)

وَكَذَٰلِكَ أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ رُوحًا مِّنْ أَمْرِنَا

[13] Ghāmidī and Saleem, Al-Bayān, vol. 4, 328, n. 136.

[14] C. W. H. Pauli, trans., The Chaldee Paraphrase on the Prophet Isaiah (London: London Society's House, 1871), 142.

[15] Cf. Qur’ān 1:4 (مَالِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ), Qur’ān 95:7 (فَمَا يُكَذِّبُكَ بَعْدُ بِٱلدِّينِ) and elsewhere, where dīn signifies divine judgement and retribution.

[16] Moisés Silva, trans., Esaias, in A New English Translation of the Septuagint, ed. Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 856.

[17] G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, eds., Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol. 9 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 97.

[18] “Bear in mind this established practice about the messengers We have sent before you, and you will not find any change in this practice of Ours.” (Qur’ān 17:77)

سُنَّةَ مَن قَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا قَبْلَكَ مِن رُّسُلِنَا ۖ وَلَا تَجِدُ لِسُنَّتِنَا تَحْوِيلًا

“So, now they are waiting for that established practice which had manifested itself for others. [If this is the case,] you shall not find any change in that established practice of God, nor shall you ever see that practice of God being deferred.” (Qur’ān 35:43)

فَهَلْ يَنظُرُونَ إِلَّا سُنَّتَ الْأَوَّلِينَ ۚ فَلَن تَجِدَ لِسُنَّتِ اللَّهِ تَبْدِيلًا ۖ وَلَن تَجِدَ لِسُنَّتِ اللَّهِ تَحْوِيلًا

[19] Cf. Qur’ān 22:52– the distinction between a prophet (nabī) and a messenger (rasul) is implied in the phrasing. 

[20] See Appendix B: An Unalterable Divine Practice– Sunnat Allāh.

[21] Qur’an 14:13–14; 61:9. Referenced as examples of divine support for messengers in the Qur’ān.

[22] “[God’s law is that] for every nation (Ummah) there is a messenger (Rasūl). Then, when their messenger comes, their fate is justly decided, and no injustice is done to them.” (Qur’ān 10:47)

وَلِكُلِّ أُمَّةٍۢ رَّسُولٌۭ ۖ فَإِذَا جَآءَ رَسُولُهُمْ قُضِىَ بَيْنَهُم بِٱلْقِسْطِ وَهُمْ لَا يُظْلَمُونَ

[Modified slightly for style and terminology from The Qur’ān Translated, trans. Ghāmidī and Saleem.]

[23] “These messengers who were sent as bearers of glad tidings and of warnings so that after these messengers people are left with no excuse which they can present before God. God is Mighty, very Wise.” (Qur’ān 4:165)

رُّسُلًۭا مُّبَشِّرِينَ وَمُنذِرِينَ لِئَلَّا يَكُونَ لِلنَّاسِ عَلَى ٱللَّهِ حُجَّةٌۢ بَعْدَ ٱلرُّسُلِ ۚ وَكَانَ ٱللَّهُ عَزِيزًا حَكِيمًۭا

[24] “No, these are but names that you and your fathers have invented. God has not revealed any proof in their favour.” (Qur’ān 53:23)

إِنْ هِىَ إِلَّآ أَسْمَآءٌۭ سَمَّيْتُمُوهَآ أَنتُمْ وَءَابَآؤُكُم مَّآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ بِهَا مِن سُلْطَـٰنٍ ۚ إِن يَتَّبِعُونَ إِلَّا ٱلظَّنَّ وَمَا تَهْوَى ٱلْأَنفُسُ ۖ وَلَقَدْ جَآءَهُم مِّن رَّبِّهِمُ ٱلْهُدَىٰٓ

[25]

“Many among the People of the Book, because of jealousy in their hearts, wish to lead you back once again to disbelief now that you have embraced faith even though the truth has become fully manifest to them. So, forgive them and ignore them until God takes His decision. Indeed, God has power over all things.” (Qur’ān 2:109)

وَدّ

َ كَثِيرٌۭ مِّنْ أَهْلِ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ لَوْ يَرُدُّونَكُم مِّنۢ بَعْدِ إِيمَـٰنِكُمْ كُفَّارًا حَسَدًۭا مِّنْ عِندِ أَنفُسِهِم مِّنۢ بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُمُ ٱلْحَقُّ ۖ فَٱعْفُوا۟ وَٱصْفَحُوا۟ حَتَّىٰ يَأْتِىَ ٱللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِۦٓ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ قَدِيرٌۭ

“[R

est assured, O Prophet! And they should also be warned that] soon We shall also show them Our signs in the world around them and within them as well until it will become evident to them that this Qur’ān is the absolute truth. And [for your assurance], is it not sufficient that your Lord is a witness to everything?” (Qur’ān 41:53)

سَنُرِيهِمْ آيَاتِنَا فِي الْآفَاقِ وَفِي أَنفُسِهِمْ حَتَّىٰ يَتَبَيَّنَ لَهُمْ أَنَّهُ الْحَقُّ ۗ أَوَلَمْ يَكْفِ بِرَبِّكَ أَنَّهُ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ شَهِيدٌ

[2

6] The idea that prophetic missions culminate in a definitive establishment of truth, thereby justifying the imposition of divine judgement in this world, exists implicitly in the classical Islamic scholarship. Classical jurists acknowledge that the military actions undertaken by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his Companions were predicated on the prior fulfilment of

Itmām al-Ḥujjah ("Completion of Proof"). Imām al-Shāfiʿī clearly indicates this principle, noting regarding Qur’ān 9:29: "It is evident from this verse that those People of the Book whom God commanded Muslims to fight until they pay the jizyah had already had proof conclusively established upon them, yet they chose to abandon God’s religion, clinging instead to the religion of their ancestors" (al-Shāfiʿī, al-Umm, 4:175).

Moreover, classical scholars debated the universality and perpetuity of such prophetic establishment of proof. They recognised the unique contextual clarity of the prophetic era and questioned whether post-prophetic circumstances could ever reach a similar level of definitive evidence against non-Muslims. Consequently, discussions emerged early on regarding the generalisation and restriction of related legal rulings, such as the permissibility of initiating warfare against polytheists as a general rule and the imposition of the jizyah. Even during the Companions' time, nuanced debates addressed these limitations. Likewise, the classical legal tradition acknowledged alternative interpretations concerning punishments such as apostasy; for instance, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and Ibrāhīm al-Nakhaʿī are reported to have prescribed imprisonment rather than execution, with Ibn Ḥazm documenting that an entire group of jurists shared this viewpoint.

Complementing these perspectives, Imām Ibn Taymiyyah emphasis a historical shift in divine retribution when he writes:

وكان قبل نزول التوراة يهلك الله المكذبين للرسل بعذاب الاستئصال، عذابًا عاجلاً يهلك الله به جميع المكذبين، كما أهلك قوم نوح، وكما أهلك عادًا، وثمود، وأهل مدين، وقوم لوط، وكما أهلك قوم فرعون، وأظهر آيات كثيرة لما أرسل موسى ليبقى ذكرها وخبرها في الأرض، إذ كان بعد نزول التوراة لم يهلك أمة بعذاب الاستئصال.

Before the Torah was revealed, God would annihilate those who denied the messengers through a swift, total punishment that destroyed all disbelievers—like the people of Noah, ‘Ad, Thamud, Midian, Lot’s people, and Pharaoh’s people. Many signs were displayed when Moses was sent so that their memory and stories would remain on earth. However, after the Torah was revealed, no nation was destroyed with a general punishment.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Al-Jawāb al-Ṣaḥīḥ liman Baddala Dīn al-Masīḥ, ed. ʿAlī ibn Ḥasan al-Ḥalabī (Riyadh: Dār al-ʿĀṣimah, 1999), 6:441-442.

He also stated:

المعروف عند أهل العلم أنه بعد نزول التوراة لم يهلك الله مكذبي الأمم بعذاب من السماء يعمهم، كما أهلك قوم نوح وعاد وثمود وقوم لوط وفرعون وغيرهم، بل أمر المؤمنين بجهاد الكفار، كما أمر بني إسرائيل على لسان موسى بقتال الجبابرة

It is well known among scholars that after the Torah was revealed, God did not destroy the deniers of the nations with a punishment from the heavens that would encompass them all, as happened to the people of Noah, ‘Ad, Thamud, Lot, Pharaoh, and others. Instead, believers were commanded to fight the disbelievers, just as the Israelites were commanded to fight the tyrants through Moses.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Al-Jawāb al-Ṣaḥīḥ, 2:251.

Imām Ibn al-Qayyim offered another perspective, stating in Miftah Dār al-Sa‘āda:

تأمل حكمته تعالى في عذابه الأمم السالفة بعذاب الاستئصال لما كانوا أطول أعمارا، وأعظم قوى، وأعتى على الله، وعلى رسله، فلما تقاصرت الأعمار، وضعفت القوى؛ رفع عذاب الاستئصال، وجعل عذابهم بأيدي المؤمنين، فكانت الحكمة في كل واحد من الأمرين ما اقتضته في وقته

Reflect on God’s wisdom: He annihilated previous nations because they had longer lifespans, greater strength, and were more rebellious against God and His messengers. When lifespans shortened and strength weakened, total annihilation was lifted, and punishment was carried out by the hands of believers. Each stage had a wisdom appropriate to its time.

[27] See Appendix B: An Unalterable Divine Practice- Sunnat Allāh.

[28] “[Believers! Why should you show reluctance when God fights from your side?] So, in reality, you did not slay them [in this battle]; it is, in fact, God Who has slain them, and [O Prophet], when you threw [dust] on them, it was not you but God Who has thrown it to show various aspects of His majesty to the disbelievers and to grant a goodly favour from Himself to the Muslims. Indeed, God sees and hears all. All this that happened is in front of you, and with it this [glad tiding] also that God shall certainly humble all the plans of these disbelievers. If you had wanted a judgement, then [O people of the Quraysh], this judgement has arrived. If [even now] you desist, it is better for you, and if you do it again, We shall also do it again, and your group, however large it may be, shall not be of any benefit to you. And fully understand that God is with the believers.” (Qur’ān 8:17-19)

فَلَمْ تَقْتُلُوهُمْ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ قَتَلَهُمْ ۚ وَمَا رَمَيْتَ إِذْ رَمَيْتَ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ رَمَىٰ ۚ وَلِيُبْلِىَ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ مِنْهُ بَلَآءً حَسَنًا ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ سَمِيعٌ عَلِيمٌۭ . ذَٰلِكُمْ وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ مُوهِنُ كَيْدِ ٱلْكَـٰفِرِينَ . إِن تَسْتَفْتِحُوا۟ فَقَدْ جَآءَكُمُ ٱلْفَتْحُ ۖ وَإِن تَنتَهُوا۟ فَهُوَ خَيْرٌۭ لَّكُمْ ۖ وَإِن تَعُودُوا۟ نَعُدْ وَلَن تُغْنِىَ عَنكُمْ فِئَتُكُمْ شَيْـًۭٔا وَلَوْ كَثُرَتْ وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ مَعَ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ

“

Fight them; God will punish them through your hands and will humiliate them and will grant you dominance through His help and will soothe the hearts of one group of the believers [through this] …” (Qur’ān 9:14)

قَاتِلُوهُمْ يُعَذِّبْهُمُ اللَّهُ بِأَيْدِيكُمْ وَيُخْزِهِمْ وَيَنصُرْكُمْ عَلَيْهِمْ وَيَشْفِ صُدُورَ قَوْمٍ مُّؤْمِنِينَ

[29] “When comes the help of God and victory, and you see people enter the religion of God in multitudes, glorify the name of your Lord while praising Him, and seek His forgiveness. Indeed, He is ever disposed to mercy.” (Qur’ān 110:1-3)

إِذَا جَآءَ نَصْرُ ٱللَّهِ وَٱلْفَتْحُ . وَرَأَيْتَ ٱلنَّاسَ يَدْخُلُونَ فِى دِينِ ٱللَّهِ أَفْوَاجًۭا . فَسَبِّحْ بِحَمْدِ رَبِّكَ وَٱسْتَغْفِرْهُ ۚ إِنَّهُۥ كَانَ تَوَّابًۢا .

[30] Qur’ān 9:1-6; Qur’ān 9:29.

[31] [Modified slightly for style and terminology from The Qur’ān Translated, trans. Ghāmidī and Saleem.]

[32] “It is He who brought forth among the Ummiyyīn a Messenger from among them, who recites to them His revelations and purifies them and for this instructs them in the Law and in Wisdom. In reality, these people were in manifest error before this” (Qur’ān 62:2)

هُوَ ٱلَّذِى بَعَثَ فِى ٱلْأُمِّيِّـۧنَ رَسُولًۭا مِّنْهُمْ يَتْلُوا۟ عَلَيْهِمْ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْحِكْمَةَ وَإِن كَانُوا۟ مِن قَبْلُ لَفِى ضَلَـٰلٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ

[Modified slightly for style and terminology]

[33] "Among the People of the Book is he who, there are those also who, if you trust them with a heap of wealth, will return it to you intact; and there are others among them also who, if you entrust them with a single dīnār, will not hand it back unless you forcefully demand it from them. This is because they have said: “We shall not be held blameworthy in the matter of these unlettered.” And it is a fact that they deliberately say of God what is untrue."

مِنْ أَهْلِ الْكِتَابِ مَنْ إِن تَأْمَنْهُ بِقِنطَارٍ يُؤَدِّهِ إِلَيْكَ وَمِنْهُم مَّنْ إِن تَأْمَنْهُ بِدِينَارٍ لَّا يُؤَدِّهِ إِلَيْكَ إِلَّا مَا دُمْتَ عَلَيْهِ قَائِمًا ذَٰلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ قَالُوا لَيْسَ عَلَيْنَا فِي الْأُمِّيِّينَ سَبِيلٌ وَيَقُولُونَ عَلَى اللَّهِ الْكَذِبَ وَهُمْ يَعْلَمُونَ

[34] Narrated Ibn Abi Mulaika:

`Aisha said, "The Jews came to the Prophet (pbuh) and said to him, "As-Samu 'Alaika (i.e., Death be upon you)." He replied, 'The same on you.' " `Aisha said to them, "Death be upon you, and may God curse you and shower His wrath upon you!" God’s Messenger (pbuh) said, "Be gentle and calm, O `Aisha! Be gentle and beware of being harsh and of saying evil things." She said, "Didn't you hear what they said?" He said, "Didn't you hear what I replied (to them)? I have returned their statement to them, and my invocation against them will be accepted but theirs against me will not be accepted."

-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 8, 226 (ḥadīth 6401).

[35] The hadith from Bukhārī’s corpus, cited at the outset, affirms these qualities in the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) through the words وَلَا سَخَّابٌ فِي الْأَسْوَاقِ ("and nor a noise-maker in the markets"), highlighting his composed and dignified demeanour.

[36] In Qur’ān 31:19, Luqman advises his son: "And be moderate in your pace and lower your voice; indeed, the most disagreeable of sounds is the braying of donkeys."

[37] “[O People!] There has come to you a Messenger from among yourselves. It weighs down heavily on him if you suffer loss. He is very desirous of your betterment, an embodiment of benevolence and ever-merciful for the believers – even then if they still turn away [O Prophet!] say: God is sufficient for me. There is no deity except Him. I have trusted Him alone and He is the Lord of the glorious throne.” (Qur’ān 9:128)

لَقَدْ جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولٌۭ مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ عَزِيزٌ عَلَيْهِ مَا عَنِتُّمْ حَرِيصٌ عَلَيْكُم بِٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ رَءُوفٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ . فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا۟ فَقُلْ حَسْبِىَ ٱللَّهُ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۖ عَلَيْهِ تَوَكَّلْتُ ۖ وَهُوَ رَبُّ ٱلْعَرْشِ ٱلْعَظِيمِ .

[38] “So, do not show haste in the decision against them. We are only completing their count.” (Qur’ān 19:84)

فَلَا تَعْجَلْ عَلَيْهِمْ ۖ إِنَّمَا نَعُدُّ لَهُمْ عَدًّۭا

[39] “And if [in this period of respite] any of these Idolaters seeks asylum from you [because he wants to hear out your message] grant him asylum until he is able to hear the word of God. Then take him to his place of safety. This is because these are a people who do not know the words of God much.” (Qur’ān 9:6)

وَإِنْ أَحَدٌۭ مِّنَ ٱلْمُشْرِكِينَ ٱسْتَجَارَكَ فَأَجِرْهُ حَتَّىٰ يَسْمَعَ كَلَـٰمَ ٱللَّهِ ثُمَّ أَبْلِغْهُ مَأْمَنَهُۥ ۚ ذَٰلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ قَوْمٌۭ لَّا يَعْلَمُونَ

[40] Ibn Ezra writes, “The prophet shall not die, or he shall not be overcome by any violence of man.”

והטעם לא ימות או טעמו אדם לא יכריחנו

Cf. Qur’ān 5:67: “[Do not be concerned about them] O Prophet [and] whatever has been revealed to you from your Lord, communicate it to them the way it should be and [remember that] if you do not do so, it will be considered that you failed to convey God’s message. [Rest assured!] God will protect you from these people because God shall never show the path of success to this disbelieving nation.”

يَا أَيُّهَا الرَّسُولُ بَلِّغْ مَا أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكَ مِن رَّبِّكَ ۖ وَإِن لَّمْ تَفْعَلْ فَمَا بَلَّغْتَ رِسَالَتَهُ ۚ وَاللَّهُ يَعْصِمُكَ مِنَ النَّاسِ ۗ إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَهْدِي الْقَوْمَ الْكَافِرِينَ

[41] Ibn Ezra writes, “Till he have set judgement in the earth, till the truth of his prophecy be proved”

עד ישים בארץ משפ'. שתתגלה נבואתו

Cf. Qur’ān 4:159: “Everyone from among these People of the Book shall definitely believe in [this Qur’ān] before his death; and on the Day of Judgement it will bear witness to them.”

وَإِن مِّنْ أَهْلِ الْكِتَابِ إِلَّا لَيُؤْمِنَنَّ بِهِ قَبْلَ مَوْتِهِ ۖ وَيَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ يَكُونُ عَلَيْهِمْ شَهِيدًا

[42] [You are a messenger of God and] Our verdict has already been delivered about servants who We send as messengers that only they will be worthy of help. And, certainly, only Our army is destined to prevail.” (Qur’ān 37:171-173)

وَلَقَدْ سَبَقَتْ كَلِمَتُنَا لِعِبَادِنَا ٱلْمُرْسَلِينَ . إِنَّهُمْ لَهُمُ ٱلْمَنصُورُونَ . وَإِنَّ جُندَنَا لَهُمُ ٱلْغَـٰلِبُونَ

[The way We helped Moses] rest assured, [in the same way] We surely help in the life of this world Our messengers and those of their companions who profess faith in them and will also do so on the day when witnesses will be called forth.” (Qur’ān 40:51)

إِنَّا لَنَنصُرُ رُسُلَنَا وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ فِى ٱلْحَيَوٰةِ ٱلدُّنْيَا وَيَوْمَ يَقُومُ ٱلْأَشْهَـٰدُ

[43] Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 5, 113 (ḥadīth 3852).

[44] Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 4, 448 (ḥadīth 3522B).

[45] If taken in the first sense, the Servant’s teaching is called Torah. One need not be astonished at this. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is reported to have called the Davidic Psalms the Qur’ān.

خُفِّفَ على داودَ القرآنُ، فكانَ يَأمرُ بِدَوابِّهِ فَتُسْرَجُ، فيَقرأُ القرآنَ من قَبلِ أنْ تُسْرَجَ دَوابُّه، و لا يأكلُ إلَّا من عَمَلِ يدِه

The Qur’an was made easy for David, so he would command that his mounts be saddled, and he would finish reciting the Qur’an before his mounts were saddled. And he would not eat except from the work of his own hands.

— Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 4, 448, (ḥadīth 3417).

Thus, the term Qur’ān in reference to a prophet may denote the divine scripture revealed to him, which is recited in a manner similar to the Qur’ān. Similarly, while Torah may also refer to a prophet’s revealed scripture, its usage specifically implies a text that, like the Torah, contains legal injunctions.

[46] See section 3.3 for the “Second Moses” interpretation.

[47] Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī, Tadabbur-i-Qur’ān, vol. 9 (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 2009), 622–23; trans. Shehzād Saleem, “Sūrah Nasr,” Renaissance, accessed April 19, 2025, https://monthly-renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=1007, commentary on verse 2.

[48] “Believers! Respond to the call of God and His Messenger when the Messenger is inviting you to that which gives life to you…” (Qur’ān 8:24)

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ٱسْتَجِيبُوا۟ لِلَّهِ وَلِلرَّسُولِ إِذَا دَعَاكُمْ لِمَا يُحْيِيكُمْ…

[49] John Goldingay and David Payne, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40–55, vol. 1, International Critical Commentary (London: T&T Clark, 2006), 226.

[50] [Modified slightly for style and terminology]

[51] “and the earth will shine with the light of its Lord and the register of accounts will be placed, and the messengers will be brought to presence to bear witness, and they also who were given the responsibility to bear witness, and judgement shall be passed with fairness among people; they shall not suffer any injustice. And each person shall be given fully what he had done. God very well knows what they have been doing.” (Qur’ān 39:69-70, emphasis added.)

وَأَشْرَقَتِ ٱلْأَرْضُ بِنُورِ رَبِّهَا وَوُضِعَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبُ وَجِا۟ىٓءَ بِٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ وَٱلشُّهَدَآءِ

وَقُضِىَ بَيْنَهُم بِٱلْحَقِّ وَهُمْ لَا يُظْلَمُونَ .وَوُفِّيَتْ كُلُّ نَفْسٍۢ مَّا عَمِلَتْ وَهُوَ أَعْلَمُ بِمَا يَفْعَلُونَ

“[On the day when the earth will shine with the light of its Lord] and you will see angels extolling and glorifying their Lord while sitting around His throne. On that day, judgement shall be passed with fairness, and [from everywhere] it shall be proclaimed: “Worthy of praise is God, Lord of the worlds.”” (Qur’ān 39:75, emphasis added.)

وَتَرَى ٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةَ حَآفِّينَ مِنْ حَوْلِ ٱلْعَرْشِ يُسَبِّحُونَ بِحَمْدِ رَبِّهِمْ ۖ

وَقُضِىَ بَيْنَهُم بِٱلْحَقِّ وَقِيلَ ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَـٰلَمِينَ

[52] “And will also give you another thing which you desire: help from God and a victory in the near future. Give glad tidings of this to the believers [O Prophet]!” (Qur’ān 61:13)

وَأُخْرَىٰ تُحِبُّونَهَا ۖ نَصْرٌۭ مِّنَ ٱللَّهِ وَفَتْحٌۭ قَرِيبٌۭ ۗ وَبَشِّرِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ

“Believers! If you help God, He shall help you and firmly ground your feet [against these enemies]. As for those who have decided to deny, for them is destruction and God has let their deeds go in vain.” (Qur’ān 47:7-8)

یٰۤاَیُّهَا الَّذِیْنَ اٰمَنُوْۤا اِنْ تَنْصُرُوا اللّٰهَ یَنْصُرْكُمْ وَ یُثَبِّتْ اَقْدَامَكُمْ . وَ الَّذِیْنَ كَفَرُوْا فَتَعْسًا لَّهُمْ وَ اَضَلَّ اَعْمَالَهُمْ . ذٰلِكَ بِاَنَّهُمْ كَرِهُوْا مَاۤ اَنْزَلَ اللّٰهُ فَاَحْبَطَ اَعْمَالَهُمْ

See also Qur’ān 3:13, 124–25; 8:65–66.

[53] “[Do not be concerned about them], O Prophet, [and] whatever has been revealed to you from your Lord, communicate it to them the way it should be, and [remember that] if you do not do so, it will be considered that you failed to convey God’s message. [Rest assured!] God will protect you from these people because God shall never show the path of success to this disbelieving nation." (Qur’ān 5:67)

يٰٓاَيُّھَا الرَّسُوْلُ بَلِّــغْ مَآ اُنْزِلَ اِلَيْكَ مِنْ رَّبِّكَ ۭوَاِنْ لَّمْ تَفْعَلْ فَمَا بَلَّغْتَ رِسَالَتَهٗ ۭ

وَاللّٰهُ يَعْصِمُكَ مِنَ النَّاسِ ۭاِنَّ اللّٰهَ لَا يَهْدِي الْقَوْمَ الْكٰفِرِيْنَ

[54] “God’s promise with those among you who have professed faith and done righteous deeds is that He shall definitely grant them authority in this land the way He had granted it to those before them and He shall fully establish for them their religion which He has chosen for them and after this state of their fear, He shall certainly transform it into peace. They shall worship Me; associate none with Me. And those who reject even after this, then it is they who are the disobedient.” (Qur’ān 24:55)

وَعَدَ اللّٰهُ الَّذِیْنَ اٰمَنُوْا مِنْكُمْ وَ عَمِلُوا الصّٰلِحٰتِ لَیَسْتَخْلِفَنَّهُمْ فِی الْاَرْضِ كَمَا اسْتَخْلَفَ الَّذِیْنَ مِنْ قَبْلِهِمْ۪-وَ لَیُمَكِّنَنَّ لَهُمْ دِیْنَهُمُ الَّذِی ارْتَضٰى لَهُمْ وَ لَیُبَدِّلَنَّهُمْ مِّنْۢ بَعْدِ خَوْفِهِمْ اَمْنًاؕ-یَعْبُدُوْنَنِیْ لَا یُشْرِكُوْنَ بِیْ شَیْــٴًـاؕ-وَ مَنْ كَفَرَ بَعْدَ ذٰلِكَ فَاُولٰٓىٕكَ هُمُ الْفٰسِقُوْنَ

[55] For details on ארץ (the land), see Section 4.3.

[56] The JPS Bible writes, “Lit. “covenants of a people”; meaning of Heb. uncertain.”

[57] Christopher R. North, The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah: An Historical and Critical Study, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), 132.

[58] The Dead Sea Scroll 4Q62 has ‘librît ôlām’ (as a perpetual covenant), instead of ‘liḇrîṯ ʿām’ (as a covenant for the people). The addition of "forever" in 4Q62 strengthens the theological depth of the Servant’s covenant.

[59] Cf. Gen. 12:3: “and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.”

[60] Cf. Isa. 9:2, 60:1-3; Prov. 6:23; Ps. 119:105.

[61] Cf. Deut. 28:28–29, 29:3-4; Isa. 6:9-10, 29:18, 42:18-20; Jer. 5:21

[62] Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah 40-66, Westminster Bible Companion (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 44.

[63] Ghāmidi, on the basis of the Qur’ān, has categorised the contents of Islam into two parts: al-kitāb and al-hikmah. While al-kitāb deals with the legal structure of Islam, al-hikmah encompasses the articles of faith and the ethical framework of Islam.

[64] Ghāmidī and Saleem, Al-Bayān, vol. 1, 288, n. 901.

[65] Ghāmidī and Saleem, Al-Bayān, vol. 2, 172-173, n. 530.

[66] “And he took the book of the covenant, and read in the audience of the people: and they said, All that the LORD hath said will we do, and be obedient” (Exod. 24:7, emphasis added).

“Go thou near, and hear all that the LORD our God shall say: and speak thou unto us all that the LORD our God shall speak unto thee; and we will hear it, and do it” (Deut. 5:27, emphasis added).

[67] “[Benefit from this concession] and keep in remembrance this favour of God to you, and also His covenant with which He bound you when you said: “We have heard and we are obedient.” [Keep it in remembrance] and have fear of God because God knows even the secrets of the hearts. Believers! [It is the requisite of this covenant that you] stand up for God, bearing witness to justice, and your animosity for a people should not induce you to turn away from justice. Be just; this is nearer to piety. And keep fearing God because God is well aware of all your deeds” (emphasis added).

وَٱذْكُرُوا۟ نِعْمَةَ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكُمْ وَمِيثَـٰقَهُ ٱلَّذِى وَاثَقَكُم بِهِۦٓ إِذْ قُلْتُمْ سَمِعْنَا وَأَطَعْنَا ۖ وَٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلِيمٌۢ بِذَاتِ ٱلصُّدُورِ ٧ يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ كُونُوا۟ قَوَّٰمِينَ لِلَّهِ شُهَدَآءَ بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۖ وَلَا يَجْرِمَنَّكُمْ شَنَـَٔانُ قَوْمٍ عَلَىٰٓ أَلَّا تَعْدِلُوا۟ ۚ ٱعْدِلُوا۟ هُوَ أَقْرَبُ لِلتَّقْوَىٰ ۖ وَٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ خَبِيرٌۢ بِمَا تَعْمَلُونَ

[68] “[So, you also glorify God and] profess true faith in God and His Messenger and spend from the things He has entrusted you with; thus, those of you who embraced faith in this manner and have spent [in the way of God], for them is a rich reward. And what has happened to you that you do not profess true faith in God and His Messenger even though the Messenger is inviting you to profess faith in your Lord, and he has also taken a strong covenant [of “listen and obey”] from you, if you really believe? It is He Who is bringing down clear revelations to His servant to lead you out of darkness into light. And, in reality, God is very Compassionate to you and extremely Merciful” (Qur’ān 57:7-9, emphasis added).

ءَامِنُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦ وَأَنفِقُوا۟ مِمَّا جَعَلَكُم مُّسْتَخْلَفِينَ فِيهِ ۖ فَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ مِنكُمْ وَأَنفَقُوا۟ لَهُمْ أَجْرٌۭ كَبِيرٌۭ . وَمَا لَكُمْ لَا تُؤْمِنُونَ بِٱللَّهِ ۙ وَٱلرَّسُولُ يَدْعُوكُمْ لِتُؤْمِنُوا۟ بِرَبِّكُمْ وَقَدْ أَخَذَ مِيثَـٰقَكُمْ إِن كُنتُم مُّؤْمِنِينَ . هُوَ ٱلَّذِى يُنَزِّلُ عَلَىٰ عَبْدِهِۦٓ ءَايَـٰتٍۭ بَيِّنَـٰتٍۢ لِّيُخْرِجَكُم مِّنَ ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ إِلَى ٱلنُّورِ ۚ وَإِنَّ ٱللَّهَ بِكُمْ لَرَءُوفٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ

[69] Prayer direction.

[70] See Appendix A for detailed linguistic and exegetical insights on the possible presence of the term "Muslim" in Isaiah 42:19.

[71] “O Prophet! [you also pay no heed.] We have sent you forth as a witness, a bearer of glad tidings, a warner and as one who will call men to God by His leave and as a shining lamp [which guides people out from darkness.” (Qur’ān 33:46)

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلنَّبِىُّ إِنَّآ أَرْسَلْنَـٰكَ شَـٰهِدًۭا وَمُبَشِّرًۭا وَنَذِيرًۭا . وَدَاعِيًا إِلَى ٱللَّهِ بِإِذْنِهِۦ وَسِرَاجًۭا مُّنِيرًۭا

[72] See Appendix B for a detailed discussion.

[73] “And [these people are ones that] when it is emphasised upon them: “Believe in what God has revealed,” they reply: “We only believe in what is revealed to us,” and in this manner they openly deny what is besides it, even though it alone is the truth in exact confirmation of the predictions that are with them.” (Qur’ān 2:91)

[74] “This is Sūrah Alif Lām Rā. This is the Book We have revealed to you so that you may bring out people from darkness into light with the permission of their Lord to the path of the God Who is powerful; has all praiseworthy attributes.” (Qur’ān 14:1)

الٓر ۚ كِتَـٰبٌ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ إِلَيْكَ لِتُخْرِجَ ٱلنَّاسَ مِنَ ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ إِلَى ٱلنُّورِ بِإِذْنِ رَبِّهِمْ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطِ ٱلْعَزِيزِ ٱلْحَمِيدِ

[75] “O People of the Book! to you has come Our Messenger who is revealing much of what you have been concealing of the Book of God, and is also ignoring many things. This light has come to you from God: a Book which explains [everything related to religion]. Through it God guides to the paths of peace those who seek to please Him; and through His grace and blessing leads them from the vastness of darkness to light and guides them to a straight path.”

يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ قَدْ جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولُنَا يُبَيِّنُ لَكُمْ كَثِيرًۭا مِّمَّا كُنتُمْ تُخْفُونَ مِنَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ وَيَعْفُوا۟ عَن كَثِيرٍۢ ۚ قَدْ جَآءَكُم مِّنَ ٱللَّهِ نُورٌۭ وَكِتَـٰبٌۭ مُّبِينٌۭ . يَهْدِى بِهِ ٱللَّهُ مَنِ ٱتَّبَعَ رِضْوَٰنَهُۥ سُبُلَ ٱلسَّلَـٰمِ وَيُخْرِجُهُم مِّنَ ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ إِلَى ٱلنُّورِ بِإِذْنِهِۦ وَيَهْدِيهِمْ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍۢ

[

76]

“All usury (Riba) of the Pre-Islamic period (Jāhiliyyah) is abolished; you will have your capital sums. Do not deal unjustly, and you will not be dealt with unjustly.”

— Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abū Dāwūd, trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2008), vol. 4, 64 (ḥadīth 3334).

[77] Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 3, 194 (ḥadīth 2125).

[78] فينا رسول الله يتلو كتابه

كما انشق معروف من الفجر ساطع

أرانا الهدى بعد العمى فقلوبنا

به موقنات أن ما قال واقع

يبيت يجافي جنبه من فراشه

إذا استثقلت بالكافرين المضاجع

[79] Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 8, 101-102 (ḥadīth 6151).

[80] It was narrated that Abū Umāmah said: ‘Amr bin ‘Ābasah As-Sulamī said: During the Jāhiliyyah, I used to think that the people were misguided and not following anything real when they worshipped idols. I heard of a man in Makkah who was telling stories, so I sat on my mount and went to find him. The Messenger of Allāh (pbuh) was in hiding and his people were persecuting him. I kept a low profile until I managed to enter upon him in Makkah. I said to him: “Who are you?” He said: “I am a Prophet.” I said: “What is a Prophet?” He said: “I have been sent by Allāh.” I said: “With what has He sent you?” He said: “He has sent me to uphold the ties of kinship, to break the idols and to proclaim that Allāh is to be singled out (for worship) and that none is to be associated with Him.” I said to him: “Who do you have with you?” He said: “A free man and a slave” – at that time he had Abū Bakr and Bilāl with him among those who believed in him. I said: “I want to follow you.” He said: “You cannot do that right now. Do you not see my situation and the situation of the people? Go back to your family, then when you hear that I have been granted victory, come to me.”

So I went to my family, and the Messenger of Allāh (pbuh) arrived in Al-Madīnah while I was with my family. I started to ask people for news after he arrived in Al-Madīnah, until there came to me a group of people from Yathrib – Al-Madīnah – and I said: “What did this man who came to Al-Madīnah do?” They said: “The people are hastening to follow him, and his people wanted to kill him but they were not able to.” I arrived in Al-Madīnah and entered upon him and said: “O Messenger of Allāh, do you recognise me?” He said: “Yes, you are the one who met me in Makkah.” I said: “Yes.” I said: “O Prophet of Allāh, tell me what Allāh has taught you, that I do not know. Tell me about prayer.”

— Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007), vol. 2, 349–351 (ḥadīth 1930), emphasis added.

[81] The expression “the ends of the earth” (Heb. qṣê hāʾāreṣ) is often used in the Hebrew Bible to denote the outermost boundaries of the land, not necessarily in a global sense. See Deut. 28:49; Jer. 6:22; Isa. 5:26; Jer. 25:31–32. These usages support the reading of Isa. 42:10 as referring primarily to the territorial extent of the Abrahamic covenant.

[82] "Thou whom I have taken from the ends of the earth, and called thee from the chief men thereof, and said unto thee, Thou art my servant; I have chosen thee, and not cast thee away." Cf. Matt. 12:42, where the Queen of Sheba is said to have arrived from “the ends of the earth,” suggesting the southernmost extremity of the promised Abrahamic territory.

[83] "To your offspring I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates." (Gen. 15:18)

[84] Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 7, 281 (ḥadīth 7258).

In his commentary on the hadith, Imam Nawawi explains that the phrase “زُوِيَ لي الأرض” (“the earth was folded for me”) means that it was gathered or contracted before the Prophet in such a way that he was able to see its eastern and western extents. He identifies this narration as containing evident prophetic miracles, all of which were fulfilled, as attested by historical developments. According to Nawawi, the two treasures (al-kanzayn al-aḥmar wa al-abyaḍ, “the red and the white”) refer to gold and silver, respectively—specifically the treasures of Khosrow (the ruler of Persia) and Caesar (the ruler of Byzantium/Syria). He notes that the hadith implicitly foretells that the dominion of the Muslim ummah would extend predominantly in the directions of the east and west, which is precisely what came to pass, while expansion to the north and south remained comparatively limited (emphasis added).

[85] In reality, Muslims conquered territories beyond this region. However, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) did not mention these areas in his prophecies with the same prominence. The reason is that these lands did not fundamentally fall within the sphere of the promised conquests (or within the domain of the biblical mišpāṭ). Rather, their conquest was an inevitable consequence of the expansion into Roman and Persian territories. In fact, the Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have instructed his companions not to initiate fighting with certain other nations, such as the Turks and the Abyssinians. See Al-Nasāʾī, Sunan al-Nasāʾī, trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab, (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007), vol. 4, 68–70 (ḥadīth 3178).

[86] Muslim tradition parallels this Biblical promise in the Qur’ān’s repeated assurances of divine support and eventual dominance for the Prophet Muhammad’s companions who uphold God’s guidance with sincerity and perseverance. For instance, Qur’ān 24:55 states: “God has promised those of you who professed belief and did good deeds that He would grant them political authority in the land the way He granted political authority to those who were before them and He would strongly establish their religion He chose for them, and replace their fear by peace. They will worship Me and serve none besides Me, and he who again rejects after this will indeed be among the disobedient.”

The rapid expansion of the early Muslim community—despite their initial weakness—fulfils this promise.

[87] David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, vol. 3, H–J (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 82.

[88] Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, 5:1230.

[89] William Smith, Smith’s Bible Dictionary, s.v. “Kedar,” http://www.ccel.org/ccel/smith_w/bibledict.html?term=Kedar (accessed April 20, 2025).

[90] Charles Forster, The Historical Geography of Arabia, vol. 1, sec. III, “Settlements of Ishmael” (London: Duncan and Malcolm, 1844), 242–43.

[91] Forster, The Historical Geography of Arabia, 250.

[92] Soomro, Taha. “The Prophet Muḥammad and Isaiah 42.” Academia.edu, July 24, 2016. https://www.academia.edu/27211948/The_Prophet_Muḥammad_and_Isaiah_42.

[93] “… When I had offered the Fajr prayer on the 50th morning on the roof of one of our houses, and while I was sitting in the condition which Allāh described (in the Qur’ān), i.e., my very soul seemed straitened to me and even the earth seemed narrow to me for all its spaciousness, there I heard the voice of one who had ascended the mountain of Salʿ calling with his loudest voice, “O Kaʿb bin Mālik! Be happy (by receiving good tidings).” I fell down in prostration before Allāh, realising that relief has come …”

— Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 5, 431 (ḥadīth 4418), emphasis added.

فبينا أنا جالس على الحال التي ذكر الله قد ضاقت علي نفسي وضاقت علي الأرض بما رحبت سمعت صوت صارخ أوفى على جبل سلع بأعلى صوته يا كعب بن مالك أبشر قال فخررت ساجدا وعرفت أن قد جاء فرج…

[94] “… The idolaters came and made camp to the north of Al-Madinah, near Uhud, and some of them camped on the high ground overlooking Al-Madinah, as God says: (When they came upon you from above you and from below you), the Messenger of God came out with the believers, who numbered nearly three thousand, or it was said that they numbered seven hundred. They had their backs towards (the mountain of) Sala’ and were facing the enemy, and the ditch, in which there was no water, was between the two groups, preventing the cavalry and infantry from reaching them. The women and children were in the strongholds of Al-Madinah.”

— Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm, 2nd ed., vol. 6 (Riyadh: Dār Ṭayyibah, 1999), 384, emphasis added.

وجاء المشركون فنزلوا شرقي المدينة قريبا من أحد ، ونزلت طائفة منهم في أعالي أرض المدينة ، كما قال الله تعالى : ( إذ جاءوكم من فوقكم ومن أسفل منكم ) ، وخرج رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم، ومن معه من المسلمين ، وهم نحو ثلاثة آلاف ، وقيل : سبعمائة ، وأسندوا ظهورهم إلى سلع ووجوههم إلى نحو العدو ، والخندق حفير ليس فيه ماء بينهم وبينهم يحجب الرجالة والخيالة أن تصل إليهم ، وجعل النساء والذراري في آطام المدينة

[95] One famous song related by the biographers of the Prophet goes as follows:

طلع البدر علينا ... من ثنيات الوداع                        وجب الشكر علينا ... ما دعا لله داع

[96] Thomas Kelly Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1891), 460.

[97] The Qurʾān makes frequent use of the Arabic root sīn-bāʾ-ḥāʾ (س-ب-ح) to convey the act of glorifying or exalting God. The occurrences of this root are numerous and pervasive throughout the text. Particularly noteworthy examples can be found in passages such as 17:1, 87:1, 2:116, and 5:116.

 [98] See, for example, the comments of Ibn Ezra on Exodus 19:20, where he explains the metaphorical nature of such portrayals.

[99] Cf. Rabbi David Kimhi (Radak) on Isaiah 42:14— “All of it is metaphorical.”

(כל דרך משל).

[100] Albert Barnes, Notes on the Old Testament: Isaiah, Volume II (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1950), 73–74.

[101] “[Thus], those against whom war is waged are granted permission of war because they have been oppressed, and God certainly has the power to help them. Those who were turned out of their houses without any justification only because they say: “God is our Lord.” [This permission has been granted because] if God did not continue to drive away people through one another, monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques in which the name of God is abundantly taken all would have been destroyed. God shall definitely help those who will strive to help Him. Undoubtedly, God is powerful, dominant over all.” (Qur’ān 22:39–40)

أُذِنَ لِلَّذِينَ يُقَـٰتَلُونَ بِأَنَّهُمْ ظُلِمُوا۟ ۚ وَإِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ نَصْرِهِمْ لَقَدِيرٌ . ٱلَّذِينَ أُخْرِجُوا۟ مِن دِيَـٰرِهِم بِغَيْرِ حَقٍّ إِلَّآ أَن يَقُولُوا۟ رَبُّنَا ٱللَّهُ ۗ وَلَوْلَا دَفْعُ ٱللَّهِ ٱلنَّاسَ بَعْضَهُم بِبَعْضٍۢ لَّهُدِّمَتْ صَوَٰمِعُ وَبِيَعٌۭ وَصَلَوَٰتٌۭ وَمَسَـٰجِدُ يُذْكَرُ فِيهَا ٱسْمُ ٱللَّهِ كَثِيرًۭا ۗ وَلَيَنصُرَنَّ ٱللَّهُ مَن يَنصُرُهُۥٓ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَقَوِىٌّ عَزِيزٌ .

[102] Barnes, Notes, 75.

[103] "I will lay waste mountains and hills"— this is a metaphor for the kings of the nations, and likewise, "their vegetation" is a metaphor for the nations themselves.

 אחריב הרים וגבעות. משל על מלכי האומות וכן עשבם משל על האומות

[104] This interpretation seems to align with passages in the Bible that portray prominent empires, kingdoms, or forces as mountains. See, for example, Jer. 51:25; Dan. 2:35, 44-45; Rev. 17:9-10. Consider also the mention of the LORD’s coming from three mountains in Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3-4.

[105] Cf. Ps. 119:1: “Blessed are the undefiled in the way, who walk in the law of the LORD”; and v. 33: “Teach me, O LORD, the way of thy statutes; and I shall keep it unto the end.”

[106] “Do they say that this person has fabricated it himself? Certainly not! In fact, it is the truth which has come from your Lord so that you can warn people to whom no warner came before you so that they can be guided.” (Qur’ān 32:3)

أَمْ يَقُولُونَ ٱفْتَرَىٰهُ ۚ بَلْ هُوَ ٱلْحَقُّ مِن رَّبِّكَ لِتُنذِرَ قَوْمًۭا مَّآ أَتَىٰهُم مِّن نَّذِيرٍۢ مِّن قَبْلِكَ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَهْتَدُونَ

“This Qur’ān replete with wisdom bears witness that you surely are among the messengers, upon a very straight path. It has been revealed with great diligence and planning from the Being Who is Powerful, Ever-Merciful. It has been revealed so that you may warn those people whose predecessors had not been warned. Hence, they are inflicted with negligence.” (Qur’ān 36:2-6)

وَٱلْقُرْءَانِ ٱلْحَكِيمِ . إِنَّكَ لَمِنَ ٱلْمُرْسَلِينَ . عَلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍۢ . تَنزِيلَ ٱلْعَزِيزِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ . لِتُنذِرَ قَوْمًۭا مَّآ أُنذِرَ ءَابَآؤُهُمْ فَهُمْ غَـٰفِلُونَ

[

1

07] Abu Sufyan said: “O Muhammad, I have sought help from my god and you from yours. By God, I never met you once except that you overcame me. Had my god been true and yours false, I would have defeated you. So, I bear witness that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.”

— al-Dhahabī,

Tārīkh al-Islām, ed. ʿUmar ʿAbd al-Salām Tadmurī (Beirut: Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī, 1990),) vol. 2, p. 531.

فَقَالَ أَبُو سُفْيَانَ: يَا مُحَمَّدُ قَدِ اسْتَنْصَرْتَ بِإِلَهِي واستنصرت بإلهك، فو الله مَا لَقِيتُكَ مِنْ مَرَّةٍ إِلا ظَهَرْتَ عَلَيَّ، فَلَوْ كَانَ إِلَهِي مُحِقًّا وَإِلَهُكَ بَاطِلا ظَهَرْتُ عَلَيْكَ، فَأَشْهَدُ أَن لَا إِلَهَ إِلا اللَّهُ وَأَنَّ مُحَمَّدًا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ.